REL 4010: The Ottoman Empire
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URL: http://www.cic.lsu.edu/Ottoman2

These notes are also available at http://members.cox.net/rbigelo/

August 24 (Monday) Introduction
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	Time line from the beginnigs of the Ottoman Empire in Asia
	Minor until the abolition of the Sultan and the formation
	of the modern Turkish state in 1927. Movements east were
	for ideological reasons. Movements to the west were for
	conquest of land and resources.

1453	Constantinople falls to the Turks.

	Kosovo "Amseifeld" 'the black birds.'

	Iran is neither Turkish, nor is it Arab. It is Persian.

1517    The Ottomans move towards the Arabs and the Persians.

1680	Height of the Ottoman Empire

	The Safavid Empire restores the Persian Dynasity.

1683	First losses by the Ottoman Empire in Europe.

1700's	Russians become a threat in the Black Sea and Crimea.

	Notion that no one should occupy the Balkans.

	Allows rise of independent countries in the area.

1912	Balkans War

1914	World War I (The Great War)

	The Ottomans still controlled the Holy Lands and Iraq.

1915 - 1917	Secret Agreements (Not the Versallies Treaty)

	Called for the partitioning of Turkey.

	The mess that World War I left behind, we're still trying
	to sort today.

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August 26 Issues
----------------

I. Historiography

	A. Is how we study the writings of historians and others
	who lived during the time period in which we are studying.

	B. Asks the question, "What are the assumptions and ideologies
	that color the way we view a history.

	C. One of the biggest Problems: the mixing of historiograpy
	and nationalism.

		1. A modern point of view projected upon a pre-modern
		state.

II. Nationalism and the Depection of the Ottoman Empire

	A. Benedict Anderson: "An imagined state."

		1. All identity and nationalism are constructed.

		2. A way in which we suddenly "root for our team."

		3. European dynasities had nothing to to with
		nationalism.

			a. There were no independentent nation-states
			under the Romanoffs.

	B. Earnest Gellner: " Nationalism invents nations where
	they do not exist. "

	C. Traditional Definitions (before Anderson and Gellner*)
	include:

		1. Ethnicity

		2. Culture

		3. Customs

		4. Religion

		5. Language

		6. Homeland

		*. According to Anderson and Gellner, no nation in
		existence has all of these at once combined.

	D. Ottoman Empire as the Colonizers of Egypt

		1. 16th - 17th Century.

		2. The colonization of Egypt and elsewhere added
		international cities in the Ottoman Empire, where
		people were categorized by their religious beliefs.

			a. Religious identities trumped all other
			categories in the international cities
			occupied by the Ottomans.

			1) Language 	2) City of Origin

	E. Multi-National States

		1. The United States of America

			a. Multi-cutltural.

		2. Empire States

		3. Disseminate themselves with a sense of one-ness.

		4. Consensus is the key to an imagined country/nation.

		5. Modern Islamic movements all reject the idea of
		a "nation."

			a. They believe that one "Umma" transcends
			all nations.

	F. The Ottomans as Foreigners

		1. 16th - 17th century writers depect the Ottoman
		Empire favorably 60 - 80 years after the conquest.

		2. Islamic conquests preceeded the Ottomans.

		3. The Ottomans were a Muslim dynasity who speak a
		different language than that of those areas conquered.

		4. It was the language difference that made the
		Ottomans foreign.

		5. At the same time, the Ottomans saw Arabic-speaking
		Muslims as foreigners, by putting language over
		religion.

		6. Arabic-speaking Muslims denigrate the Ottoman
		Empire as the "low point" of Islam.

		7. The Ottoman Empire unified the Muslim States
		more so than any other dynasity.

		8. The wealth of Muslim literature was created in
		the Arabic-spaking world.

		9. The Turks were considered "late-comers" and the
		Ottoman Empire was blamed from "bringing down" the
		Umma.

		10. The Mongol sacking of Baghdad left the Muslim
		world un-anchored.

		11. The Mughal, Safavid and Ottomon Empire-States
		were all ethnically Turkish - and the last of a
		long-line of Islamicate - dynasties.

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August 28 Origins of the Turks and the Ottoman Dynasty
______________________________________________________

I. Geographical/Physical

	A. Altay Mountain range in Mongolia.

	B. Chinese sources first mention these in the third
	centuryKazakh Steppes. before the common era (BCE).

II. Conversion to Islam

	A. 7th and 8th Century CE

		1. The Arabs attempt to subgitate the people of the
		area but never penentrate beyond the Kazakh Steppe.

	B. 10 Century CE.

		1. A Khanate was established in the south and west
		of Kazakhstan.

	C. After civil war erupts, tribes commanded by Seljuk flee
	to the Islamized state of the Samanid dynasity.

	D. In 999 CE, Seljuk converted to Islam and became a Muslim.

III. The Turks of West Anatolia "Oghuz"

	A. The Turks of West Anatolia ("Oghuz") settle under Seljuk.

	B. 1243 - 1258	The Mogols destroy the Seljuk state.

	C. 1299 An Independent Ottoman principality is extabllished
	by Osman, son of Oghuz, leader of the Ertugrul.

	D. Reign of Orhan Ghazi begins in 1326

		1. During this time, many other Irkhans (kings)
		convert and became the greatest patrons of Islam.

VI. Ethnic Divisions - Ethnicity versus Nationality

	A. Who is a Turk?

		1. Anyone who speaks a Turkic language.

		2. Is a linguistic grouping, NOT an ethnicity.

		3. The original Turkic peoples were well-mixed with
		other ethniciites and language groupings.

		4. These were a nomadic tribe wandering down from
		the Altay Mountain Range of Anatolia in Western
		Mongolia.

		5. A common symbol in this area was the wolf and
		the common motto, was "Contempt for death."

	B. Before the 7 - 8th century, CE; Buddhism was the dominant
	tradition of the region, even when under Islamic rule.

		1. Turks were permitted to practice Buddhism, given
		they paid taxes to their Islamic rulers.

		2. During the 10th century, a civil war broke out
		between the various tribes people of the Oghuz
		Khanate of the Turkish Empire.

		3. After a failed attempt at an intervention, Seljuk
		fled to the lands of the Samanid dynasity.

		4. In 999, Seljuk converts to Islam as a political
		move to encourage Muslims to help him fight the
		Karanids.

			a. Karanids were enemies of the Samanids.

			b. Karanids conquered the city of Burkhara.

V. Origin of the Ottomans

	A. The Seljuk state was a Turkish dynasity in which took
	place a huge conversion to Islam.

	B. Between 1243 and 1258, the Moguls destroy the Seljuk
	state.

	C. Around this time, many of the Ilkhan dynasity began
	converting rapidly to Islam.

	D. In 1299, Osman (son of the Seljuk Oghuz leader, Ertugal)
	began an independent Ottoman principality and establishes
	a state structure and establishes a new capital at Bursa.

	E. One year later, the Byzantine Empire lost all of its
	power.

	F. In 1326, Orhan Ghazi (son of Osman) begins his reign.

		1. Son of Osman by a daugher of a Byzantine prince
		named Theodora.

		2. Pattern of marriage between Ottoman Sultans and
		Byzantine Christian women.

		3. Pattern of Sultans of the Dynasty:

			a. Seljuk

			b. Osman

			c. Orhan

VI. Millet System

	A. A form of government giving various ethnic, cultural and
	economic communities the right to govern themselves.

	B. See also,

http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761553949/Ottoman_Empire.html#s3

	C. Under the Millet System, communities also have their own
	courts.

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August 31 Islam (1)
-------------------

I.  Mumammad (570 - 632)

	A. Born in the city of Mecca, in what is now Saudi Arabia.

	B. Orphaned early in childhood and given military training
	to prepare him for the harsh life that existed at the time
	along the trade routes of the Arabian Peninsula, where
	warring tribes often fought each other to the death.

	C. Intellectual Honesty of early records.

		1. Maxine Robinson

			"We know to much about him to idolize him,
			yet we know too little to do him justice."

	D. Was NOT divine. He was just a messenger.

		1. A doctrine of infallibility was later sanctified.

	E. United formerly warring tribes of the Arabian Peninsula.

	F. Founded a religious movement that over-took most of the
	civilized world during its Empire.

	G. Introduced the notion of the U m m a

		1. The idea that ideology transcends race, class,
		culture, ethnicity, language, tribe ... et cetera.

		2. All humankind is one community

		3. A powerful ideological tool.

	H. Imposed a tax - Z a k a t - for which a percentage of
	one's gross wealth goes to the needy.

	I. Once an ascetic mystic who'd retreat to the mountains
	to comtemplate.

		1. Was accused of being a poet, an unsavory title
		during his time.

	J. Married to Khadija and cousin to Ali.

		1. Khadija was the first convert to Islam.

		2. Ali was a Christian who became the second.

	K. Received inspiration from the angel Gabriel who ordered
	him to recite from the revealed books of God.

		1. His first recitation became the first line of
		the Quran.

	E. Earliest Converts to Islam.

		1. Muhammad's wife, Khadija.

		2. His formerly Christian cousin, Ali.

		3. The poor, slaves, women with children.

			a. The Urban culture of Mecca included many
			widowed mothers and orphaned children.

			b. The Prophet himself was an orphan.

		4. Idealistic young men from elite families seeking
		faster upward social mobility.

	F. Hjra (migration) 622 CE

		1. Year 1 in the Muslim Calendar.

		2. The year Muhammad migrates to Medina and to the
		north of Mecca.

		3. The Prophet sought aslyum in various cities and
		was invited to Medina.

			a. City of important Jewish tribes.

			b. Also a city of Pagan tribes.

			c. During a fierce civil, Muhammad is sought
			to arbitrate disputes between the tribes.

		4. The city of Medina is important because:

			a. First Muslim City-State.

			b. Site of the first Mosque.

			c. Beginning of the the concept of U m m a

			d. The City in which Muhammad becomes a
			statesman. Five adjectives:

				1) Statesman

				2) Prophet

				3) Warrior

				4) Judge

				5) Political Leader

		5. Battle of Badu

			a. 300 Muslims versus 3,000 Meccans.

			b. The Muslims win and the Meccans declare
			that the high god Al-lah, must have had a
			hand in the Muslim victory and flock to
			Muhammad for nominal conversion.

				1) A nominal conversion is done for
				political reasons.

		6. Conquest of Mecca (630 CE)

			a. Muhammad commands an army of 10,000,
			takes Mecca and declares a general amnesty.

			b. Why? Because Mecca is his home town.

	G. Career as a Merchant

		1. As with most children of nomadic tribes, Muhammad
		had military training to prepre him for the very
		harsh life on the Arabian Peninsula.

		2. Muhammad began his adult life as a merchant,
		leading caravans through the peninsula and unrelenting
		tribal warfare in which warring parties fought each
		other to the death.

		3. It was during his career as a merchant that
		Muhammad learned of the Abrahamic faiths and of
		Christianity along the trade routes.

	H. Apologetics for Muhammad's multiple wives.

		1. Began during the Victorian era.

		2. A common tradtion was that the Prophet was
		motivated by social and political concerns.

			a. War widows.

		3. Why was this insufficient?

			a. Did he have to marry all of them for
			himself?

		4. Muhammad has several to whom he was attracted.

			a. His favorite was the youngest.

		5. Muhammad was monogamous with his first wife,
		Khadija, a wealthy older woman to whom he was
		employed as a merchant.

			a. She was the first to believe that he was
			the Prophet and the first to convert to
			Islam.

			b. Following Khadija's death, Muhammad did
			not remarry until he was sixty years old.

		6. Traditional Islamic culture maintains no separation
		between the body and the spirit.

		7. Abrahamic cultures traditionally allow four
		wives, one for each week of the month.

		8. It is written that Muhammad was fond of:

			a. Horses

			b. Cats

			c. Women

II. Succession of Caliphs

	A. Abu Baker (632 - 634)

	B. Umar (634 - 642)

	C. Uthman (642 - 652)

	D. Ali (686 - 661)

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September 2 Islam (2)

III. Conquests (632 - 732)

	A. Futuhat "opening"

	B. Conquests

		1. Jerusalem	638 CE

		2. Egypt	639

			a. Egyptians enjoyed a religious freedom
			to the extent that Egypt remained a majority
			Christian for four hundred years after "the
			opening."

			b. Reason: taxation. Non-Muslims were
			required to pay a  J i z y a . The more
			non-Muslims, the more taxes the Ottoman
			Turks could collect.

			c. Conversion to Islam was discouraged based
			upon this taxation.

		3. Persia	633 - 651

			a. After intense fighting, the Persions
			were the first to convert to Islam.

			b. First to convert after fighting the
			longest and hardest.

		4. Sindh	664 - 712

		5. Caucasus	711 - 750 

		6. Spain	711 - 718

		7. Anatolia	1060 - 1360

	C. Conquest of the Byzantine Empire

		1. Byzantine Empire was in a state of decline.

		2. Muslim conquerors were aided by Christians who
		were against the Byzantine state. Why?

			a. Taxation

			b. Coptic amd Gnostic Christians were
			declared heretics by the Byzantines and
			heretofore intensely persecuted.

	D. Conquest of the Zoroastrian Empire

		1. Zoroastrian Empire was in a state of decline.

IV. Methodological Issues

	A. What is Islam?

	B. Who speaks for Muslims?

V. Islamic Sciences

	A. Quran: considered by Muslims to be the revealed word of
	God.

		1. Unadulterated mythology.

	B. Hadith: narrative reports on the actions of the Prophet.

	C. Law "Fiqh al-Sharia"

		1. Four Sources

	D. Philosophy

	E. Mysticism; Sufism; 12th - 19th Century CE

		1. Consideres the Divine to be an i m m a n e n t
		and not a  t r a n s c e n d a n t being.

			a. Monistic; monism.

				1) Seeks oneness with the Divine.

			b. No theistic Godhead.

		2. Divine Consciousness

			a. Created beings are a "spark of divinity."

			b. Divine self-awareness.

			c. Stresses the importance of Creation.

			d. Asks for the Divine to know itself.

			e. The Divine attains self-awareness though
			three ways of knowing.

				1) Reason: logic and mathematics.

				2) Intuition

				3) Revelation

			f. A Shakha ("peer") becomes one with the
			Divine and are enlightened.

		3. Is platonic.

		4. Claims prophecy is unnecessary and even refers
		to prophets as charlatans.

		5. Claims that revelation and prophecy can be
		attained through reason.

VI. Three Pillars of Faith

	A. Tawhid

	B. Revelation

	C. Prophesy (books of revelation)

VII. Five Pillars of Islam

	A. Shahada (profession of belief)

	B. Hajj (pilgrimmage)

	C. Ramadan (fasting)

	D. Salat (prayer) 

	E. Zakat (alms-giving)

VIII. Sunni - Shia Split

	A. Occurred two hundred hears after the death of the Prophet,
	Muhammad.

	B. Muhammad's cousin and the second convert to Islam, Ali
	was the last to assume the Caliphate.

	C. Each Caliph had his own party of followers and Ali's
	followers believed that HE should have been the FIRST Caliph.

	D. Two Factions Appeared from this disagreement.

		1. Sunni

			a. Followed a scholary tradition much like
			rabbinical tradtions of post-temple Judasim.

			b. Held no priestly class.

			c. Maintained an orthoproxy - "correct
			conduct."

			d. "To speak of God with upmost certaintiy
			is blasphemy."

			e. No one is authorized to speak for God.

		2. Shia

			a. Followed a clerical tradition and
			maintained a priestly class.

			b. Maintained an orthodoxy - "correct
			belief or opinion."

			c. Keeps much in common with Roman Catholicism.

			d. First Shia Empire was Egypt, which is
			today mostly Sunni, especially in Cairo.

	E. The Iran - Iraq war was also a Sunni/Shia dispute.

		1. Religion is a great recruiting tool for warring
		nations.

IX. Modernity

	A. The movement toward orthodoxy is a modern phenomenon in
	religious traditions.

	B. Global phenomenon.

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September 4 The Ghazi state
---------------------------

I. History

	A. Ethnic: A Non-ideological military state of Asiatic Turks

	B. Ideological: "warriors of the faith."

		1. Volunteers from the borders.

		2. Mercenaries

		3. Adventurers

		4. Zealots

	C. Two Theories

		1. Ethnic Turks


		2. Multiple Ethnicities
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September 7 LABOR DAY HOLIDAY

September 9 Ottoman Entry into Europe
-------------------------------------

I. Headed west

	A. Osman Gazi (1299-1324)

	B. Orhan Gazi (1324-1360)

		1. Bursa 1326

		2. Nicaea 1331

		3. Nicodemia 1337

		4. Gallipoli 1354

II. Byzantine Empire - resisted the Ottomans.

	A. Fourth Crusade 1204

		1. French knights under contract with the Venetians.

		2. Sought to revenge the Ottoman sacking of
		Constantinople.

	B. Latin States - resisted the Ottomans.

		1. Re-conquered by the Greeks.

	C. Orhan married Theodora, daughter of John V Kantakouzenos

	D. Gallipoli

	E. The Byzantine Empire was but a shadow of it's former self.

III. Murad I (1359-1389)

	A. Adrianople (Edirne) 1361

	B. Parts of Macedonia 1372

	C. Sofia 1385 Ni 138

	D. Battle of Kosovo, June 28, 1389

IV. Slavs

	A. West Slavs (Czechs, Poles, Slovaks)

	B. East Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, White Russians)

	C. South Slavs (Serbs, Bulgarians, Croats, Slovenes,
	Macedonians)

	D. Entered the Balkans in the 6th century AD

V. First Slavic State:  Kingdom of Moravia

	A. Constantine-Cyril (monk) and Methodius (diplomat)

		1. Mission to Moravia 863 AD

		2. Cyrillic Alphabet

		3. Cyril chosen by the Byzantine Emperor.

			a. Monk; scholar; linguist.

			b. Wanted the Moravians to adopt orthodox
			Christianity.

	B. War among the Franks, Moravians, Bulgarians, and Byzantines

		1. Moravians sought an Alliance with the Byzantine
		Empire.

			a. Byzantines at first, responded positively.

		2. The Franks attack the Moravian Kingdom.

			a. Orthodox missionaries were expelled and
			fled to Bulgraria, where the Cryllic alphabet
			spread in its use.

		3. The Bulgarians were attacked by the Byzantines.

	C. Boris of Bulgaria welcomed the Cyrillic Alphabet

	D. From Bulgaria the Cyrillic Alphabet spread to the Orthodox
	Slavs

	E. Bulgaria today is a slavic state.

VI. Cyril and Methodius

	A. Cyril

		1. Monk, scholar, linguist.

		2. Presented the Slavs with a Cryllic alphabet as
		a gift.

	B. Methodius

		1. Diplomat

VII Cyril's original alphabet

VIII. Cyrillic alphabet today

IX. The Serbs - main enemy of the Ottomans.

	A. Stephan Nemanja I, the Grand Zhupan of Rashka (1168-1196)

	B. Stephan Nemanja II, first king of Serbia (1196-1217)

	C. St. Sava, the kings brother and patron saint of the Serbs

X. Stephan Dushan the Mighty 1331-1355

	A. 1340  Began his quest to become Byzantine Emperor

	B. 1346 Emperor of the Serbs, Greeks, Albanians, and
	Bulgarians

	C. 1355 Death

	D. Proposal to the Pope at Avignon:  He would recognize the
	Pope as "Father of all Christians" if the Pope would declare
	him "Captain of the Whole of Christendom" with the authority
	to lead a crusade against the Turks

XI. Battle of Kosovo, June 28, 1389

	A. Legend

		1. Tsar (or Prince) Lazar Hrebeljanovic and His
		queen Milica

		2. Kosovo Polje (Field of the Blackbirds)

		3. Prophet Elijah allegedly promised Tsar Lazar the
		Kingdom of Heaven for intentionally losing the
		battle of Kosovo.

		4. Vuk Brankovich (villain)

		5. Milosh Obelich (hero, who killed Sultan Murad)

XII. Battle of Kosovo

	A. Truth

		1. Prince Lazar

		2. King Tvrtko of Bosnia

		3. Vuk Brankovic - Serb who fought with the Turks.

			a. Was probably not a traitor.

		4. Marko Kraljevi - Serb who fought with the Turks.

		5. Konstantin Dejanovi

			a. Serbs and Greeks are traditionally allied
			against the Turks.

		6. John VII Palaiologos

			a. Fought with the Turks with an army of
			Genoise mercenaries.

		7. Bayezid the Thunderbolt

			a. Took his father's place and goes to Anatolia.

		8. King Sigismund of Hungary

		9. Prince Stephen Lazarevi

	B. Was NOT exclusively a battle between Serbs and Turks.

		1. Both armies were made of mixed ethnicities.

		2. The Serbian army was made up of:

			a. Albanians

			b. Hungarians

			c. Assorted mercenaries.

	C. We really don't know what happened.

		1. All we have are legends.

	D. Serbia actually fell to the Turks in 1459, after the
	fall of Constantinople.

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September 11 Ottoman Military System
------------------------------------

	The Ottomans were a military success due to the weakness
	of their enemies and that they had put together a remarkable
	military establishment that - up to the reigh of Suleiman
	the Magnificent - was to be the finest military force in
	Europe.

I. Sultan, head of state

	A. The Head of State was also the military leader.

	B. In the Ottoman Empire, the military and civil goverment
	were as one.

	C. The Sultan would always begin his wars in Constantinople,
	where Spahis in neighboring tiers of land would join him
	as he marched up the great military roads.

II. Grand Vizier, principal minister

	A. Between 1453 and 1623 the 47 grand viziers were:  11
	Albanians, 11 South Slavs, 6 Greeks, 1 Circassian, 1Armenian,
	1 Georgian, 5 Turks, and 11 unknown.

III. Ghazis, warriors for the faith

	A. Many of these were actually Chrisitians who had no qualims
	about killiing the Ottomans' Muslim enemies.

	B. These also included Sufis who sought mystical experience
	from fighting and fasting.

	C. Were paid with plunder from conquests.

	D. Began to fade out in the 14th Century.

III. Spahis, cavalry - 14th Century, CE

	A. Timars (Ziamets, Khass):  Grants of land

		1. Were given to the Spahis in return for their
		good service to the Ottoman Empire.

	B. Sultan owned the land

		1. The Spahis had no right to it.

		2. This prevented the Spahis from challenging the
		Sultanate.

		3. Only the Sultan could own the land.

		4. Ziamets and Khass were larger tiers of land
		loaned to foundations.

	C. Command structure of the spahis

		1. Subashis, junior officers

		2. Beylerbeys, commanders of continents

	D. Numbers are hard to tell

	E. Were a disciplined force that wore armor.

VI. Janissaries - Infantry began by Murad I

	A. Devshirme

		1. Recruiting Christian boys, converting them to
		Islam, training them to become soldiers and
		administrators

		2. 10% went to the palace school to train for
		administration; 90% became janissaries

	B. Palace School

	C. Closest to the Sultan in battle

	D. Half lived in Constantinople; half kept order in the
	provinces

	E. Janissaries could be dangerous

		1. No law of succession

		2. Sultans could kill potential rivals, especially
		their brothers

	F. Mehmed Sokolovich

		1. Bosnian Christian boy picked-up by the Devshirme.

		2. Became a Grand Vizier under Suleiman the
		Magnificent.

		3. Built a bridge over the Drina river to put the
		ferry-men out of business.

V. Irregular forces - "Shock Troops"

	A. Came for plunder, glory, and perhaps a timar

	B. Placed in front during the battle

	C. Were afterwards, used as body guards and a police force.

VI. At its height, the Ottoman army numbered up to 300,000 on
campaign

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September 14 Conquest of Constantinople

I PRELUDE TO CONSTANTINOPLE

	A. 1389 Ottoman Military force still relied on ghazis

	B. Creation of new kinds of forces, the most famous being
	the janissaries and spahis

	C. In 1389 at times used Christian allies and mercenaries

	D. Bayezid the Thunderbolt

	E. Conquest of Anatolia

	F. Used Christian vassals to fight other Muslims

	G. Bayezid, 1389-1403

		1. Becomes the Sultan after the death of his father
		in 1389.

		2. Withdraws from Europe in 1402 to secure is
		Sultanate in Anatolia.

		3. Meets cursaders at Nicopolis and destroys them.

		4. Depended heavily on his Christian warriors.

		5 Was captured in 1402 and committed suicide in
		1403.

II. Constantinople

	A. Is a very difficult place to attack.

		1. Triangular shape fortress city.

		2. Formidable walls.

		3. Control of the surrounding sea essential.

	B. Nicopolis Crusade to rescue Constantinople

	C. King Sigismund of Hungary

	D. Pope Boniface IX called a crusade

	E. Battle of Nicopolis, September 25, 1396

		1. Bayezid met the crusaders at Nicopolis and
		destroyed all but the Hungarians.

		2. The crusaders attempted a calvary charge against
		the Ottoman's defense in depth and were eventually
		destroyed by the Janissaries.

			a. The crusders did not heed warnings not
			to engage in a calvary charge against the
			Turks.

			b. The Ottoman defense in depth wore down
			the crusaders, who were eventually slaughtered
			by the Janissaries.

	F. Boniface IX and Sigismund of Hungary

	G. Timurlane (Timur the Lame)

	H. Battle of Ankara 1402

	J. Murad II (1421-1451)

		1. Successor to Bayezid.

		2. Consolidates the Ottoman Empire.

		3. 1422 Attacked Constantinople with cannon, but
		unable to take Constantinople.

	K. 1430 Salonica with a navy

		1. Taken, along with most of the Venetian Islands.

	L. Varna Crusade, 1444

		1. Last great western crusade to save Constantinople.

	M. John Hunyadi of Hungary

	N. King Vladislav of Poland

	0. Vlad Dracul of Walachia

		1. Endorsed by the Pope.

		2. Father of the infamous Dracula.

	P. Battle of Varna, November 10, 1444

		1. The Crusaders were out-numbered by a huge margin
		and defeated by troops led by Murad II.

	Q. Constantinople was next

III. Constantinople

	A. Debate

		1. Mansel stresses that Constantinople has so
		significantly shrunk by 1453, it had been reduced
		to villages connected by roads.

	B. Steven Runciman

		1. Pro-Byzantine in his writing.

		2. Writes the conquest of Constantiople was an
		"unavoidable catastrophe."

	C. City had only about 100,000 inhabitants in 1450

	D. 1439 Reunification of the Catholic and Orthodox churches
	at Council of Florence

		1. In order to seek the aid of the five greatest
		Archbishops for the defense of Constantinople.

		2. Outraged the Orthodox clergy.

			a. Many would have preferred to live under
			the Turks than that of the Catholics.

		3. Led to the last crusade to rescue the city.

	E. Filoque Crisis

		1. Eastern Orthodox Christians think Roman Catholic
		Christians are "heretics" because of their different
		belief.

			a. Eastern Orthodox: "God is the Father
			THROUGH the Son."

			b. Roman Catholic: "God is the father AND
			the son."

IV. Preparations for the Siege

	A. 1451 Construction by the Turks of Rumeli Hisar on the
	western side of the Bosporus

	B. Spring 1453 Constructed a fleet of 100 ships

		1. Presence weakened the citys defense by forcing
		man-power to be moved from the landward approaches
		to the seaward approaches.

	C. New cannon including one that was twenty-six feet long

		1. Intended to breach the walls of the most
		heavily-fortified city in the known world.

	D. Mohammed (Mehmed) II (the Conqueror), 1444-1446, 1451-1481

	E. Rumeli hisar

IV. Siege

	A. April 6 Beginning of Siege

	B. April 22 Hauled ships over land to the Golden Horn

	C. May 29 Final assault

		1. Turkish soldiers asked for their traditional
		three days' of unrestricted looting in return for
		their final assault on Constantinople.

		2. The slaughtering of civillians would be stopped
		so they could be sold into slavery.

	D. Constantinople walls

		1. Turkish soldiers could not get through the inner
		wall.

		2. Janissaries discovered a sally port left open.

		3. The city fell later than morning.

	E. Hagia Sophia as Christian

		1. Was turned into a mosque.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

September 16 DISCUSSION:  Mansel 1-132
--------------------------------------

I. The Conqueror

	A. Rebuilds and re-populates the city.

		1. Brings in nobles from throughout the Ottoman
		Empire.

		2. Forces artisans out of Bursa to help rebuild the
		structures.

		3. Gives Greeks, Jews and Genoans their own millets.

			a. Were taxed as non-Muslims.

			b. Jews served as  "usurers," lenders of
			money for interest.

II. Nationalism and Multi-Nationalism (page 7)

	A. The idea of Muslim nationalism is problematic and becomes
	a curse by 1830.

	B. Nationalism and ethnicity are used interchangably.

		1. Nationalism projects modern ideas and pre-supposes
		a state in which a given ethnicity resides.

			a. Nationalism is defined as a modern concept
			that a people deserve a sovereign state of
			their own.

			b. Nationalism was absent as a concept
			during the Ottoman Empire.

		2. Ethnicity includes,

			a. Language groupings

			b. Culture

			c. Customs

	C. Professor Meshal includes language groupings in ethnicity.

	D. Mohammed the Conqueror brought in different ethnicities
	because heach had a certain skill helpful to the rebuilding
	and re-populating of the city of Constantinople.

		1. Armenians were stereotyped as jewelers.

		2. Jews were stereotyped as "usurers," lenders of
		money for interest profit, and they were allowed
		to do so by the Ottoman Empire.

III. City of God (chapter 2)

	A. Dervishes (those who "open the doors.")

	B. Sufism

		1. Sober

			a. Believed in a TRANSCENDENT God apart
			from all creaton.

			b. Lived to the letter of Muslim law and within
			social conventions.

		2. Intoxicated

			a. Believed in an IMMANENT God within all
			creation.

			b. Lived within the spirit of Muslim law,
			which trumped it's literal meaning.

	C. Monks

		1. Mendicant

			a. What mattered was the essential soul.

			b. Extremist and other-worldly.

			c. Many were Ghazi warriors in order to
			achieve a higher state after experiencing
			suffereing and hardship.

			d. Believed in an IMMANENT God that is
			within all persons and all things.

		2. Deviant

			a. Flouted social conventions to a great
			extent and mocked them as an attachment of
			the body.

			b. Attempted to demonstrate the meaninglessness
			of gender as a social category.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

September 18 Egypt and the Arab Heartland
-----------------------------------------

Gaza Theorists
--------------

I. Mansel

	A. Criticisms of Mansel

		1. Not trained in Islamic studies.

		2. Example: Orthodoxy in Istanbul and the theme of
		progress versus anti-progress for which Mansel
		compares with Baghdad and Cairo.

			a. Outlandish statement.

	B. Maintained that the Ghazis were fanatical warriors.

II. Gibbons

	A. Questioned the view that the Ottomans were merely Asiatics.

		1. No ethnic purity.

	B. By the 1980's the Ottomans were Muslim in name, only.

		1. No ideological purity.

III. Koprulu and Wittek

	A. Koprulu: reflects upon the vigour of the Turkish people.

	B. Wittek: the Ottomans were Ghazis - warriors for Islam.

IV. Paul: thesis focuses on Turkish tribalism.

V. Kafadar: defends Wittek.

	A. Meta-doxy

		1. The idea that everyone who is a Muslim has a
		different idea of what it means to be a Muslim.

		2. The Ghazi state was INCLUSIVE and fostered
		religious synchretism.

	B. Maintains there's more to Ghazi than ideology.

	C. The Ghazi state was both a ideological and political
	battle-ground.

	D. The Ghazis were "irregular" forces (many were mendicant
	and Sufi) that did not recognize a central authority.

	E. Thesis of Ottoman mentality is analogous to the settlement
	of the Western United States by settling pioneers.

VI. The Conquest of Egypt, Syria and the Hijaz (Meshal)

	A. Born of an Ottoman desire to re-unify Arabic Islam.

	B. Occured during the reign of Mamluk (1260 - 1516/1517)

	C. Ottomans began moving into Arabic domains.

	D. The Turks saw the Arabs as the forebearers of Islam.

	E. The Ottoman Turks wanted to shift the balance of the
	population from predominantly Christian to that of predominantly
	Muslim.

	F. How do you justify conquering lands that are already
	Muslim?

		1. The Quran forbids the shedding of Muslim blood.

		2. In the sixteenth century CE, warfare between
		Muslims was more common than that between Muslims
		and Non-Muslims.

		3. The Ottoman Turks claimed they were fighting the
		"tyrannical rulers of the Islamic states.

	G. Muftis would issue takfirs and fatwas against members
	the Mamluk dynasty.

		1. Kafir: an unbeliever.

		2. Takfir: to declare someone an unbeliever.

		3. Fatwa: a religious opininon concerining Islamic
		law.

	H. The Ottoman Turks of the Mamluk dynasty were trying to
	bring about a new order to the Arabian Muslim states.

	I. Imaginary dialog between an Ottoman Mamluk Turk and an
	Arabian Muslim.

		1. Will you re-new Islam?

		2. No, I will not. I already AM a Muslim.

	J. In a clash of cultures, the Ottoman Turks under Mamluk
	called the Arabians, "bad Muslims." Gee ... where have we
	heard something like THAT before?

	K. The Ottomans claim the moral "high ground" in this
	fundamentalist movement seeking a religious identitiy for
	the Turks.

		1. They were Muslim puritans seeking to codify the
		Laws of Islam.

	L. There is no one as fervent as a "new Muslim" or a
	"late-comer" to Islam.

	M. Modernity

		1. Religious funamentalism is a modern idea.

		2. Includes the idea of a centralized bureaucratic
		state.

			a. In opposition to the Millet system.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

September 21 Egypt (2)
----------------------

VII. After the Conquest - the Ottoman Empire After 1517

	A. The Sultan adopts the title of Caliph.

		1. Caliph: successor to The Prophet.

		2. Most significant event in the Ottoman Empire.

		3. The title became meaningless because so many
		laid claim to it.

			a. ibn Taymiyyah: "The Caliph is an unnecessary
			fiction."

		4. There were three adjoining states for which each
		Sultan claimed the title of "Caliph."

			a. Ottoman

			b. Mogol

			c. Safavid

		5. There was a fourth state with a self-titled
		Caliph in New Deli

			a. Two Caliphs were permitted to co-exist,
			if they were separated on different land-masses
			or continents.

			b. That leaves two Caliphs whose title were
			illegally proclaimed.

		6. An important duty of a Caliph is to protect the
		routes to Mecca for those making the pilgrimmage.

		7. The Caliph must also provide water along the
		route to Mecca in the form of cisterns, wells and
		way-stations.

			a. The cost was tremendous and only a very
			wealthy Caliph could provide such.

			b. The quantity and quality of protection
			and water provided along the pilgrimmage
			routes to Mecca and the Holy Lands were the
			mark of a good Caliph.

	B. Abolishes the positions of four Chief Judges.

		1. The Turkish-speaking Hanafi Chief Judge was the
		exception.

	C. Replaces the positions of four Chief Judges with these
	two positions.

		1. Quadi "Arab" (law for the civilian)

		2. Quadi "Asker" (law for the military)

		3. These were intended to prevent assimilation
		between Ottoman troops with the local inhabitants
		and secession from the Ottoman state.

	D. Creates a fixed court system and state archives.

	E. Imposed court fees and a tax on marriages.

		1. These were considered by many to be disgraceful
		and an act of unbelief.

	F. Qanumana Misr (secular law of Egypt)

	G. Reasons for the legal reforms imposed by the Ottoman
	Empire

		1. The Ottoman Turks were trying to mold themselves
		a new identity by centralizing the state and their
		power in a trans-national Empire.

		2. In a move toward modernity, the Ottoman Turks
		are centralizing and codifying law and power
		throughout their Empire.

		3. Traditional Islamic Legal System

			a. Sharia: the correct path; abstract

			b. Fiqh: jurisprudence (four levels)

				1) Quran: the fundamental sacred
				text of Islam; considered the word
				of God.

				2) Hadith: recorded actions of The
				Prophet.

				3) Qiya: an analogical system of
				legal reasoning.

				4) Ijma: consensus of scholarly
				peers

			c. Five scholary schools of law, each with
			it's own chief judge.

				1) Shafti (Sunni)

				2) Maliki (Sunni)

				3) Hanafi (Sunni; Turkish)

				4) Hanbali (Sunni)

				5) Ja'fari (Sh'ia)

			d. The idea of the four Sunni schools of
			Islamic Law is that no one is receiving
			revelation after The Prophet, Muhammad.

				1) Each of these four Sunni schools
				offered more personal freedom than
				the centralized Ottoman legal reforms
				did later.

			e. There were no fixed court-houses in
			traditional Islamic Law.

				1) The court was personified by the
				judge, who also had custory of all
				legal documents.

		4. One intent of the Ottoman reforms was to limit
		accusations of heresy in the Ottoman Empire.

		5. Another was to create an Ottoman subject - the
		proto-citizen.

 VIII. Movement Towards Modernity

	A. Rising literacy rates.

	B. Changing patterns of production.

	C. Propelled the Ottoman states towards centralization.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

September 23 Suleiman the Magnificent (1)
-----------------------------------------

I. Suleiman the Magnificent

	A. Ruled 1520-1566

	B. Son of Selim the Grim

		1. Legend has it that he is the son of a daughter
		of a Crimean Khan.

	C. Character

		1. He came to power under very favorable circumstances.

			a. He was the tenth Sultan in a tradtion
			for which the number 10 is considered holy.

		2. He was known by his own as "the renewer."

		3. He was given the name, "Suleiman" ("Soloman")
		by westerners, whom he often emulated.

		4. Suleiman was a linguist who often spoke to his
		Viziers in their own native language.

		5. In customary Middle Eastern tradition, he learned
		a trade.

			a. A precaution should his Sultanate be
			destroyed.

			b. A way to identify and empathize with the
			local populace.

		6. As a Sultan, he chose to make war upon the West.

	D. Enemies were Hungary and Venice, both weaker than usual

		1. Hungary had weak kings during the sixteenth century.

		2. Venetian commerce suffered from Selims conquest
		of the eastern Mediterranean and the Portuguese
		explorations to India

	E. Behind Hungary and Venice lay a more formidable Christian
	foe:  the House of Habsburg

		1. Charles V (ruled 1520-1556)

			a. Ascended to the throne by means of
			marriage and inheritance.

		2. Charles ruled Spain, the Spanish New World,
		Netherlands, Austria, most of Italy, and was emperor
		of Germany and the foremost ruler or Christendom.

			a. Placed his eastern lands in the hands
			of his brother Ferdinand

			b. His brother Ferdinand was his principal
			foe.

	F. Suleiman focused on the fortress of Belgrade and the
	island of Rhodes

	G. Belgrade (Hungary)

		1. Key to the upper and lower Danube and base of
		operations.

			a. Was supplied via the Danube by means of
			a very important river fleet.

			b. The river fleet left in 1521.

		2. King Louis of Hungary (ruled 1516-1526) ascended
		to the throne by election.

		3. Fell to the Turks, August 1521

	F. Rhodes

		1. Knights of St. John of Jerusalem

			a. Were supported by the Venetians.

			b. Became an obsticle to trade and commerce
			between Constantinople and the Ottoman
			Empire.

		2. Suleiman attacked the fortress of Rhodes in July
		1522

			a. The knights fought furiously.

		3. Surrendered January 1, 1523

			a. Only after Suleiman offered the Knights
			VERY generous terms of surrender.

		4. Knights went to Malta and became Knights of Malta

		5. The siege of Rhodes did a lot of damage to
		Suleiman's Ottoman Army.

			a. He sought to rest them and rebulid its
			strength.

	G. Back to Hungary

		1. Reason for war:  Janissary unrest

			a. Janissaries overturned soup kettles in
			protest.

			b. Suleiman orders his army to set out of
			Hungary to placate them.

		2. Set out for Hungary spring 1526 Battle of Mohcs,
		August 29, 1526 

		3. Battle of Mohacs, August 29, 1526

			a. King Louis was killed in battle.

	H. Conquest of Hungary

		1. Suleiman did not want to administer Hungary.

		2. King Louis was married to Charles V's sister,
		who was a Hapsburg and the family tried to lay claim
		to Hungary.

	I. Treatment of Hungary as a Vassal Principality

		1. John Zapolyi of Transylvania as vassal prince
		of Suleiman.

		2. Ferdinand of Habsburg (King of Hungary and
		Bohemia, 1526-1564)

			a. Used a mercenary army wielding pikes to
			destroy Ottoman calvary.

			b. Ferdinands army drove Zapolyi out of
			Hungary, 1527-1528

			b. Suleiman lays siege to Vienna in response.

	J. First Siege of Vienna, 1529

		1. Siege of Vienna In context of Catholic/Protestant
		dispute in Germany

			a. Catholics and Protestants set their
			differences aside to help fight the Ottoman
			Turks.

			b. Catholics, French and the Ottoman Turks
			all help to save the Protestant Movement.

		2. Siege, September-October, 1529

		3. Another effort to reach Vienna, 1532

			a. Suleiman offered his army three days of
			unrestricted plunder.

	K. Focused mostly on Persia after 1532

	L. Last campaign westward 1566 Death on that campaign

II. Ottoman government in the Balkans

	A. Malcolm wrote that the real division in the Ottoman
	Empire was not between Muslim and non-Muslim but between
	those who fought the Empires wars and those who paid for
	them

	B. Ottoman conquest initially benefited Christian peasants

	C. Rajahs

	D. Orthodox priest (called a pope) negotiated with the
	Ottoman authorities.

	E. Knez (village elder) resolved disputes within the village

	F. Extended family (zadruga)

	G. Millet = division of the population by religion

		1. Common division was Muslim, Armenian, Jewish,
		Orthodox Christian

	H. Guilds

	G. Rich millets included Phanariotes, Greeks who lived in
	the Phanar district of Constantinople

III. Conversions to Islam

	A. Significant conversions in Bosnia, Albania, and the
	Bulgarian mountains

	B. Noel Malcolm's reasons for conversions in Bosnia

		1. Weak presence of Orthodox and Catholic Churches

		2. Devshirme was popular among Bosnians

		3. Slaves who had converted to Islam were often freed

		4. Cities, particularly Sarajevo, attracted Muslims

		5. Muslims who were living in Hungary moved into
		Bosnia after Hungary was lost in the 1680s

	C. Noel Malcolm's reasons for conversions in Albania

		1. Ottomans applied pressure on Albanians to wean
		them away from Venice

		2. Albanians converted for reasons of economics and
		status

		3. Albanian Catholics were more likely to convert
		because of weak presence of Catholic church

	D. Paul Cole's reasons for conversions:

		1. Conversions took place in mountainous regions,
		which were poor and off the main roads

		2. Sparse Orthodox and Catholic presence

		3. Shiite chaplains for the janissaries (Sufis)

		4. Tolerant regarding social behavior

		5. Women could go unveiled and men could drink

IV. Demographic Peculiarities

	A. After 1492 Jews came from Spain and Portugal and settled
	in the Ottoman Empire Sephardic (Spanish) Jews

	B. Settled most famously in Sarajevo, Salonica, and Palestine

	C. Military borders especially the Austrian Military Frontier,
	1522-1881

	D. Turks settled in Bulgaria, Macedonia, Thrace

	E. Crimea 
	
		1. Conquered in 1470s

		2. Crimean Tartars

		3. Tartars kept their Khan and government 

V. Political Pecularities

	A. Walachia and Moldavia (Romania)

		1. Walachia became a vassal state in 1393, Moldavia
		in 1511

		2. Kept their nobility (boyars) and their princes
		(hospodars)

		3. Michael the Brave (died 1601) united Walachia,
		Moldavia, and Transylvania to throw off Turkish
		rule

		4. After Michael, sultans sold the hospodarships,
		usually to Phanariote Greeks

	B. Transylvania

		1. Vassal state with its own prince

		2. Participated in the western religious wars of
		the 17th century

	C. Dubrovnik (Ragusa)

		1. Paid annual tribute to the sultan in exchange
		for self-government and freedom of trade

	D. Montenegro ruled by Orthodox bishops

	E. Greece

		1. Athens and Rhodes belonged to the Ottoman family

		2. Ianina had special privileges

		3. Mount Athos was an ecclesiastical republic

			a. The ecclesiastical communities of Mount Athos

--------------------------------------------------------------------

September 25 Suleiman the Magnificent (2)
-----------------------------------------
Suleiman Qanuni ("the Law-Giver")
-----------------------------------------

I. Qanuni

	A. Refers to

		1. State Law

		2. Secular Law

		3. Customary Law

			a. Traditions that aren't codified.

			b. Customary laws are only valid in the
			areas from which they originated.

			c. Is time-restricted.

			d. Can only apply in a gray area of secular
			or state law.

				1) Example: feuds between in-laws.

			e. Cannot be made retro-active.

			f. Is recognized to be as moral as Islamic
			Law.

			g. Does reality exist in nature, or is it
			simply revealed in the Revelation?

				1) Every community has some sense
				of morality that existed before the
				Revelation to The Prophet.

			h. Is often more barbaric than Shariah.

	B. Existed beside Islamic Law

	C. Comes from Turkish-Mongol roots.

	D. Has always existed in conflict with Islamic Law.

		1. Example: Festivals and Celebrations.

		2. Example: Converts among the Hindu and Sufi.

		1. Local populations and Islamic Scholars feared
		that Quanuni would infringe upon Shariah (Islamic
		Law) and Scholarly Law. (important for your paper
		topic)

--------------------------------------------------------------------

September 28 DISCUSSION: Peirce, all
------------------------------------

I. Women and Property, Public, Private and Investment

	A. The elite of Muslim women were not public women.

		1. The privilege of the elite of Muslim women was
		not to appear in public and when so, these were
		often veiled and cloaked.

			a. The veil is a sign commanding respect.

			b. Poorer or slave women were those who
			were "public women" appearing in market
			places and on the streets.

		2. This was a tradtion that began centuries before
		The Prophet and the Ottoman Empire.

	B. Though they were not public women, many of the elite
	Muslim women were investors.

		1. Wakhi: an attendant to conducted investment
		business on behalf of elite Muslim women who were
		not public.

II. Main Points

	A. The courts of the Ottoman Empire were sought in those
	circumstances when the local custom would not be to one's
	benefit.

	B. Another factor that drew locals to the courts of the
	Ottoman Empire was the new reqiurement for documentation
	as evidence.

		1. Documents were copied a a court archive.

III. Morality

	A. Complaints could be ruled upon by local morals and
	customs, but could not be legally binding.

	B. A universal moral code throughout the Ottoman Empire,
	stripped local customs of their legal teeth.

VI. Proto-citizenship

	A. By stripping local customs of their legal teeth - and
	while action based upon a local moral code ws not forbidden
	- a universal moral code forces one to become a proto-citizen
	and subject of the Ottoman Empire.

	B. Armenians and Christians often took advantage of the
	Ottoman courts.

	C. Examples:

		1. Jewish Tax Farm

		2. Court ruling in the case of women.

			a. Encouraging women to become proto-citizens
			of the Ottoman Empire.

V. Final Point

	A. Muslim free-men were the most privileged in the Ottoman Empire.

	B. Women and minorities were considered vulnerable communities.

	C. Ottoman courts ruiling in favor of women and minorities
	as vulnerable communities in an attempt to compensate for
	their lower status.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

September 30 Ottoman Culture (1) 
--------------------------------
Legal Customs & Political Culture
--------------------------------

I. Political Culture (mid-sixteenth century)

	A Sultinate / Caliphate

	B. Rise of the Bureaucratic State - Diwan system of government

		1. Administration

		2. Judicial

			a. Chief Mufti

				1) Hanafi School of Law

II. Economy

	A. Waqf (endowment)

		1. Personal endowments were often used to circumscribe
		Islamic law regarding inheritance.

		2. Were often made by wealthy persons for

			a. Schools

			b. Charities

			c. Construction

			d. Public works

	B. Guilds

		1. Equivalent to our labor unions.

	C. Welfare - "vulnerable communities"

		1. Widows

		2. Orphans

		3. The handicapped

		4. The Poor

III. Education

	A. Madrasa - educational institution

		1. Madrasah aamah - "public school"

		2. Madrasah khāṣah - "ivate school"

		3. Madrasah dīniyyah - "religious school"

		4. Madrasah Islamiyyah - "Islamic school"

		5. Madrasah Jami'ah - "university"

IV. Legal

	A. Islamic Law

		1. Has been circumscribed by secular law during the
		early modern period of the Ottoman Empire.

		2. Today, only covers marriage and divorce.

		3. Was a tempering measure to customary law to make
		it less harsh.

	B. Customary Law

		1. Has filled the gap where Islamic law once prevaled.

			a. May explain the rise in honor killings.

		2. Local communities and tribal courts are assuming
		THEY are the Islamic courts, even though they have
		had no training on Islamic law.

		3. Customary Law is often more barbaric than Shariah
		/ Islamic Law.

	C. Secular

		1. Circumscribes Islamic law.

		2. Leaves a vacuum where Islamic law once prevailed.

		3. In response to secularization, local and tribal
		customs are filling the void where Islamic law once
		prevailed.

	D. Counter-Intuitive

		1. Law and punishment during our modern times is
		much more conservative and fundamentalist than
		during the sixteenth century when Islamic law
		prevailed.

			a. Even in the sixteenth century, penalties
			proscribed by the Quran were considered
			"barbaric."

			b. Islamic Scholars gave opinions on,

				1) The rights of God

					a) Prayer

					b) Fasting (Ramadan)

					c) Pilgrimmage (Hajj)

				2) The rights of humans

					1) Taking a life

					2) Fornication
		
					3) Between humans

		2. Islamic fundamentalist leaders

			a. Are often Engineering faculty at secular
			universities.

			b. Dismiss Islamic law as heresy.

			c. Understand the Quran in a literal sense.

			d. Upon realizing Islamic law is far more
			liberal than how they originally perceive
			it to be, blame all historical events since
			the death of The Prophet, for the "undoing
			of Islam."

	E. Mihna

		1. Began as a dispute as to whether or not the
		Quran was created or uncreated.

		2. The main point about this dispute was that
		scholars were fighting for the right to study
		Islamic Law without interference by the state.

		3. Academics insisted on the right to determine
		what a law was and the state would be responsible
		for enfocing it.

	F. Jami'i (philosopher)

		1. Takes us back the original meaning of a law.

		2. This inspiration comes from natural law.

			a. Natural law is a morality which exists
			in nature.

			b. Positive law is an invented, secular
			morality.

		3. Argues agains positive law.

		4. Is a response to the Sultan's wishes to elevate
		Quanum to the level of Islamic law.

	G. Nomos ("Namus" in Arabic)

		1. Overcomes the independence of Islamic Jurists.

		2. Over-rides customary laws.

		3. Referred to as "yosaq al quft."

			a. "Laws of Un-belief."


		4. Hastens the onset of the "proto-citizen" in the
		Ottoman Empire.

		5. Is Imperial custom imported over local custom.

		6. Loosens the bonds of custom over the individual.

		7. Begins the Modern era of the Ottoman Empire.

		8. Begins the bonding of the individula with the
		state.

V. Why the Middle East is "different" from the Balkans.

	A. Middle Eastern cities were a l r e a d y developed at
	the time of the Ottoman conquests of those areas.

	B. The Balkans were under-developed and were in need of
	further development when the Ottoman Turks arrived.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

October 2 FALL HOLIDAY
----------------------

October 5 Ottoman Culture (2)
-----------------------------

I. The Islamic City

	A. General Planning

		1. Circular

		2. Major market at the center.

			a. Heart of the city.

		3. Shapes the cultural landscape.

	B. Every dynasty had its own style.

	C. Grand monuments

		1. Intended to show greatness.

		2. Grand mosques

			a. Taj Mahal - Mogol Mosque.

			b. Have no drawn figures.

				1) Fear of idolitary.

			c. Geometric patterns.

	D. Quarters/Millets

		1. Located along the periphery.

		2. Divided by,

			a. Guilds.

			b. Socio-economic status.

			c. Religious identity.

			d. Ethnicity.

			e. Language group.

	E. Classic Islamic City - Fez, Morocco.

	F. Holy Kabah

		1. A shrine located in Mecca, Saudi Arabia.

		2. Believed to have been built by Abraham.

		3. Arabians wanted to ground themselves in the
		Abrahamic tradition.

		4. The Sultans spent a lot of money on the upkeep
		of Mecca and teh Holy Kabah.

		5. Muslims circumambulate the shrine seven times
		during a pilgrimmage.

		6. Pilgrimmage rites are pre-Islamic.

II. Clothing of the Ottoman Empire

	A. Colors are used to identify the various ethnicities,
	language groupings, guilds, and religious identities.

	B. Wearing of candles as a head-dress to denote "the moth
	to the eternal flame."

	C. Only elite (private) women wore veils.

	D. Westernization of Ottoman clothing begins in the 1920's
	after the Sultanate was abolished.

	E. In Anaturk, both the fez and turban were abolished, but
	not the veil.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

October 7 DISCUSSION: Raymond, 1-288
------------------------------------

I. Raymond (1-288) gives the reader a sense of what life was like
centuries before the Ottomans arrived.

	A. Separate living quarters for diverse communities.

	B. Diverse communities identifiable by the color of their
	garments.

	C. Over-arching acceptance with momentary exiles of Jews
	and Christians in brief moments of religious intolerance.

II. Virtual continuity.

	A. The Ottomans haven't created anything new.

		1. No new innovative concepts.

	B. Exception - standardization of weights and measures.

		1. The Ottomans didn't invent market inspection.

		2. The fazed out local measures for a universal
		system of weights and mesaures.

III. Raymond on 17th Century Decline in the Ottoman Empire

	A. As the Ottomans decline, the Mamluks gain power.

		1. These were children of the Military elite.

		2. The Mamluks replinished themselves through
		slavery before the Janissaries.

			a. The Janissaries were domestic slaves.

			b. The Mamluks entered the aristocracy.

			c. Military recruitment ended following
			with the decline of the Ottomans.

	B. As the Ottomans decline, so do their systems of weights,
	measure, law and justice.

		1. Local customs return.

	C. 1517 - the Final Catastrophe

	D. The Ottomans were not consistent in keeping / Co-opting
	/ dispossessing the existing elites.

		1. This was the same pattern of all medieval empires.

	E. Cosmopolitanism

		1. Many medieval civilizations were very diverse.

		2. Each community within a medieval civilization
		had their own schools.

		3. There were no public schools in the medieval
		empires.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

October 9 Decline of the Ottoman Empire, Traditional version - Roider
--------------------------------------------------------------------

I. Beginnings of Ottoman Decline

	A. Decline, Resurgence, Decline Resumes

	B. Fish stinks from the head.

	C. Ended practice of killing brothers

		1. Weakened the power of the Sultan.

	D. Confined them to the harem instead

		1. An artificial environment for which the most
		important figure was a young Sultan's mother, eunich
		or wet-nurse.

	E. After 1617 eldest living family male took the throne

		1. A Grand Vizier will protect his own job by not
		trying to introduce reforms or disagree with the
		young Sultan.

II. Ottoman Decline

	A. Decline in the quality of men who served the sultan

	B. Decline in quality spread to bureaucracy: offices were
	sold

		1. After 1650, the Ottoman Empire was a bureaucratic
		state.

	C. Decline in professional and moral standards of ruling
	and Muslim institutions

	D. Most striking was decline in military efficiency

		1. Army had reached the limit of its reach

		2. More formidable enemies

		3. Safavid Persia

			a. Safavid resurgence encourages growth of
			Sh'ism.

			b. Shah Abbas the Great the most powerful
			Safafid ruler.

		4. Western warships in the Indian Ocean

			1. Presence of British and Dutch warships.

		5. Technology problems in the Mediterranean (Lepanto
		1571)

			1. Christian Ships

				a. Superior cannon

				b. Armored Marines aboard possiessing
				firearms.

				c. Gelleisus - heavy armed, warships.

			2. Ottoman Ships

				a. Inferior cannon

				b. Crew and troops using bows and
				arrows.

		6. Russia:  Ivan the Terrible, Khazan, and Astrakan

		7. Failure to conquer new lands with opportunity
		for loot and slaves meant that soldiers had to be
		paid in money

		8. If not money, privileges

			a. Where cash was not available, Janissaries
			demanded allowances to marry, practice
			professions and enroll their newly-acquired
			sons to enroll in the Corps.

		9. Janissaries allowed to marry

			a. With wives, come children and both
			require money to support.

			b. With children, somes the demand to enroll
			their sons into the Corps instead of the
			traditional method of recruiting the sons
			of Christain peasants.

		10. Janissaries allowed to practice professions

			a. Between wars, so they could support
			their newly-acquired wives and children.

			b. Beginnings of part-time soldiering?

		11. 1574 could enroll their sons in the Corps

			a. Replaces the traditional recruitment of
			sons of Christian peasants.

		12. Less enthusiasm about going to war

III. Economic Decline

	A. Water route to India severely damaged Ottoman commerce

		1. The Ottomans are no longer the "middlemen" for
		trading in the East for spices.

		2. In 1555, the Austrian Ambassador to Constantinople
		complained that the Western discoveries were taking
		attention away from the Ottomans.

			a. Water route to India.

			b. Silver discovered in the Americas.

	B. Spanish silver from America caused a rapid devaluation
	of Ottoman currency


		1. Ottoman currency was backed-up by the value of
		silver.

		2. With the new influx of silver mined from America,
		the metal ecame less precious and lost much of its
		value, with devastation effects on the value of
		Ottoman currency.

	C. Had to find new sources of revenue

	D. Sold the timars to their holders (chifliks)

		1. Once considered the foundation of the Ottoman
		Military, the Spahis were now considered obselete
		and the sale of the timars would generate badly
		needed cash to the Ottoman Empire.

		2. The selling of timars to private ownership begins
		Feudal economies and the rise of the land-owning
		classes.

	E. Impact on the peasants

		1. Because the timars were no longer owned by the
		Sultanate, and now were the possession of a private
		owner, Ottoman law no longer applied to them.

		2. Peasants living on now privately owned land were
		now vulnerable to oppression by the land lords.

	F. Peasants lost their protection under Ottoman law

		1. Peasants fell into debt, some were expelled from
		the land, some took to banditry

		2. What made it all worse was that the Empire.s
		enemies were getting stronger

IV. Russia Emerges

	A. An attempt to build a canal between the Don and Volga
	rivers fails, rsulting in the limit of Ottoman expansion.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

October 12 Decline of the Ottoman Empire, Revised version - Meshal
--------------------------------------------------------------------

I. Military

	A. Decline or Evolution?


		1. Payment in cash.

		2. Part-time soldiers with professions, wives and
		children.

	B. European Innovation

		1. The Europeans innovated tactics and organization.

		2. The Ottomans remained static.

II. Economic Decline or Readjustment?

	A. Applied to the eitire Mediterreanean region from 1650
	- 1680.

	B. Massive influx of silver from the Americas.

	C. Expanision on the part of the Arabian provinces.

	D. Coffee and sugar become the new economic engine.

III. Anatolia

	A. Period of unusual economic grownth for which the number
	of urban Ottoman taxpayers more than doubled.

	B. Sale of timars to Spahis and others disenfranchises the
	peasants from Ottoman law, and gives rise to a new middle-class
	of land-owners and introduces Feudalism.

IV. Cultural (according to Raymond)

	A. Arabic ethnic bias against the Ottomans.

		1. "Cultural and intellectual apathy" common themes.

		2. "Cairo" and "Morality Tales"

			a. "Cairo" a travel guide.

			b. "Morality Tales" an academic work.


	B. Rising literacy rates amond a rising consumer middle-class
	creates a need for making more intellectual materials
	available.

	C. A rising literate consumer middle class also needs more
	popular histories.

	D. While the rising middle class in the Ottoman Empire may
	be increasingly  more literate, these may not be literate
	enough to read the scholarly works of Islam.

	E. Private libraries are a new phenomenon among the literate
	classes in the Ottoman Empire.

	F. Islamic scholars fear that making the Holy Koran available
	to the masses might lead to:

		1. Discontent and upheaval as was being witnessed
		of the Protestant Reformation.

		2. Misinterpretation of the Holy Koran by non-scholarly
		person who were becoing increasingly literate.

V. Political Decline or Modernity?

	1. A monarchy becomes a bureaucracy as the Sultan has
	increasingly little influence in the affairs of the Ottoman
	Empire.

	2. A child Sultan kept in a Harem cannot lead a military
	state and military affairs are left up to military
	professionals.

	3. Where there was once despotism, a bureaucratic state
	appears for which the power of the Sultanate moves to the
	institutations.

VI. Involvement with the Harem

	A. "Era of Harem rule" a tradition among Turkish - and some
	modern - historians.

	B. Decentralization is debunked when consideration is given
	to the fact the Ottomans often left elites in power over
	local communities, states and proviences.

		1. Mamluks

		2. Safavids

		3. Vassal States

	C. As centralized authority becomes less and less influential,
	local institutions and elite families gain power and
	authority.

	D. "Nascha" literature.

		1. Advice presented to the Sultanates by scholars.

		2. Often a commonplace nostalgia by scholars who
		are losing their hegemony over employment opportunities
		in the face of an increasingly literate populations.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

October 14 MID-TERM EXAMINATION

--------------------------------------------------------------------

October 16 Ottoman/Habsburg Wars
--------------------------------

I. First Half (1593-1656) of The Long War (1593-1699) 

	A. 1593 Revolt in Transylvania and Walachia with intervention
	from Rudolph II of Habsburg

		1. Overthrew the Turkish suzantry.

		2. Phrase "The Long War" coined by Peter F. Sugar

*	B. Treaty of Sitva-Torok 1606: First treaty in which the
	Ottomans recognized another power (Habsburgs) as equals

		1. Before this, Suleiman the Magnificent had claimed
		the Ottoman Turks were the "only Romans."

	C. War with Persia (Shah Abbas the Great, ruled 1587-1629)

	D. Revolt in Lebanon

		1. Meant the Ottomans were facing problems in the
		East.

	E. Shah Abbas the Great, ruled 1587-1629

	F. Wars aggravated internal problems

		1. Wars required money, which led to abuses

		2. Tax farms bought and sold

		3. Judges and decisions were bought and sold.

			a. Led to problems with the peasantry.

		4. The Janissaries were sold the right to engage
		in police actions.

			a. Let to "protection rackets."

			b. Quote: "The Janissaries were worried
			because 'the Ottomans were coming.'"

	G. Three terrible sultans, 1593-1617

	H. 1617 Things actually got worse

	I. 1623 Murad IV and revival

		1. 1632 Assumed effective power

		2. Killed an estimated 20,000 to encourage the
		others

		3. Murad IV (ruled 1623-1640)

		4. Reforms

			a. Slowed down the transformation of timars
			into chifliks

			b. Ended the sale of offices

			C. Got rid of tax-farming

			d. Punished judges who took bribes

			e. Formally ended the Devshirme

			f. Restored morality.

			g. Forbade alcohol, tobacco, coffee-houses
			(as havens for discontent), yet Murad died
			an alcoholic.

			h. This was a revivial - bringing back the
			old ways.

		5. Defeated the Persians

		6. Died 1640

			a. Died as an alcholic.

	J. Ibraham (ruled 1640-1648) and Decline Resumed

		1. Old ills returned:  intrigue, tax-farming,
		corruption

		2. Sought to conquer Crete from the Venetians

			a. Landed his forces in 1645

			b. Could not take the island

			c. Fortress of Canea was the biggest problem
			on Crete.

		3. In 1656, the Ventians attacked Constantinople
		and blockaded the Dardanelles.

	K. Mohammed IV (ruled 1648-1687)

		1. 1656 A naval defeat so complete that the Venetians
		blockaded the Dardanelles

II. Long War 1656-1683

	A. 1656 Mohammed Kiuprili (1583-1661), 73-year-old grand
	vizier appointed by the Sultan's mother.

		1. Albanian Christian origins

		2. One of the last Devshirme boys

		3. Assumed practically full power

		4. Reduced tax farming, rid the army of unreliable
		elements, tightened administration in the provinces

		5. Could not end the war in Crete 

	B. Ahmed Kiuprili (1635-1676)

		1. Mohammed's son

			a. Better educated and more savvy than his
			father, and more careful, too.

			b. Realized the war with Venice had to come
			to an end and that he could not take Crete
			without a powerful navy.

		2. 1670 Ended the war in Crete by offering generous
		terms  restoration of Venices trade privileges

		3. War against Poland 1672-1676 secured all of the
		Black Sea coast

*		       a. This is when the Ottoman Empire was at
		       its height in terms of territorial expansion
		       by 1676.

		4. War with Austria, 1664

	C. Changes in western military practice - Austria

		1. 30 Years War had revealed the danger of relying
		on mercenary armies

			a. Profit motive

			b. Dishonesty

			c. Marauding

			d. Carrying pestilence and disease - the
			plague

		2. New armies

			a. State armies

		3. Discipline

		4. Ranks

			a. Louis XIV set up a table of rank that
			we still use today.

		5. Uniforms

			a. Color used to determine enemy from
			friendly forces.

			b. Cromwell and his "red-coats."

		6. Education

			a. Books became available on military tactics
			and strategy.

		7. Equipment

			a. Musket

			b. Bayonet

			c. Standard until the U.S. Civil War.

		8. Talent

			a. All Catholic Army.

			b. The Germans expelled Protestants and
			invited Catholics.

	D. War with Austria, 1664

		1. Ottomans encountered this new Austrian army at
		Battle of St. Gotthard, 1664

		2. Unexpected defeat but did not lead to disaster
		because of Austrian commitments against France

			a. Fear of Louis XIV.

		3. Ahmed Kiuprili died 1676

	E. Kara Mustapha, 1676-1683 ("Black Mustapha")

		1. Foster brother of Ahmed Kiuprili

		2. War against Russia, 1677-1681

			a. The Ottomans faced regular Russian troops
			for the first time and were defeated.

		3. Cossacks of the Ukraine

			a. Orthodox Christians who went south in
			search of freedom from their peasantry.

		4. Campaign against Austria

			a. Took advantage of Hungarian discontent
			with Habsburg rule

				1) The bulk of Hungary was eventually
				ruled by the Turks.

			b. Set out to take Vienna, which had eluded
			even Suleiman the Magnificent, in the spring
			of 1683

				1) Vienna, the "red apple."

			c. The Germans refuse to help from fear of
			Louis XIV.

		5. Bavaria was guarded by an army competently led
		by Max Emmanuel.

		6. Poland was guarded by Jan Sobieski who manages
		to convince the Poles to "do something."

			a. Poland was a constitutional disaster
			from 1772 - 1795 and disappeared from the
			European map until 1919.

	F. Sieve of Vienna 1683

		1. Complicated siege - that's why it took so long.

		2. The Ottomans faced Imperial troops (Kaiserliche
		truppen) while the Poles were lost in the woods.

		3. Death of Kara Mustafa by a "golden rope."

		4. The Austrians re-conquered Hungary.

		5. Louis XIV's invasion of Germany gives the Ottomans
		time to recover from the defeat.

	G. Battle of Zenta 1697

*		1. Most humiliating defeat in Ottoman history.

		2. The Ottoman army was caught in a ring of fire
		and essentially destroyed.

		3. Treaty of Karlowitz 1699

--------------------------------------------------------------------

October 19 Eighteenth-century Reform (Traditional version)
----------------------------------------------------------
I. Ottoman Reform

	A. The persistent question after 1699:  What must the Ottoman
	Empire do to survive?

	B. The Empire had introduced Western technology throughout
	its history

	C. David Ibrahim Pasha, Grand Vizier 1718-1730

II. Ahmed III, 1703-1730

	A. Said Chelebi and the printing press, 1727

		1. First printing press in the Ottoman language.

	B. Ibrahim Müteferrika

		1. First book appeared in 1729

		2. Press was closed in 1742

		3. Another press appeared in 1784 and from then on
		printing in Ottoman continued

	C. Other reforms

		1. Impact on the the social and cultural life of
		Constantinople

		2. Popularity of everything western

		3. Tulip mania (Ahmed IIIs reign is called the Tulip
		Era)

			a. The Tulip is an Ottoman plant.

		4. Set up a fire department.

	D. 1730 Murder of the Grand Vizier and forced abdication
	of Ahmed III

	E. 1718 - 1730 was the first significant period of Ottoman
	reform.

III. Mahmud I (ruled 1730-54)

	A. Alexander von Bonneval (1675-1747)

		1. Western-style bombardier regiment

		2. School of geometry and ballistics

		3. Closed in 1750

IV. Ottoman Reform

	A. 1759 Bonnevals school reopened

	B. Defeats at Russian hands, 1768-1774, produced calls for
	more reform

		1. The Russians were claiming *they* were the true
		inheritors of the Roman Empire.

		2. 1771 The Austrians engage in an alliance with
		the Ottoman Empire because the Austrians fear the
		Russians.

	C. 1773 Baron de Totts School of Mathematics

		1. Instructors did not have to convert to Islam

V. Reaction against reform by the religious leaders

VI. 1787-1791 War against Russia and Austria which the Ottomans
survived mainly because Russian and Austrian hearts were not in it

VII. Calls for more reform

--------------------------------------------------------------------

October 21 Eighteenth-century Reform (Revised version)
------------------------------------------------------

I. Does Modernity (modernization) equal Westernization?

	A. Steps to Modernity

		1. Secularization

		2. Reason above revelation

		3. Citizenship - Nationalism

		4. Constitutionalism

			a. Covenant between the individual and the
			state.

			b. All are equal under the law.

			c. One's religious identity becomes less
			and less of an attribute.
	
				1) Compare with the Millet system.

	B. Islam was a cross-fertilization of all cultures that
	existed up until that time.

II. Civilization "Borrowing"

III. Eighteenth-century Reforms

	A. Ushered in by Murat IV

		1. "The Great Reformer"

		2. Considered a traditional reformer.

		3. Tried to recreate the Ottoman Empire as a
		traditional Middle Eastern power.

		4. Wrote extensively that failure to keep the old
		Ottoman standards led to the decline of the Ottoman
		Empire.

			a. Moral lax-ness.

			b. Foreign substances.

				1) Coffee

				2) Tobacco

				3) Sugar

			c. Poets and artists who offended Ottoman
			sensibilities.

	B. Tulip Era 1718 - 1730

		1. Period of conspicuous consumption.

		2. Books were translated into Ottoman Turkish.

		3. Conspicuous consumption fostered a backlash in
		the form of a revolt.

	C. Revolt by Patrona Halil Isyani (d. 1730)

		1. More of a class stuggle than a revolt.

		2. With more power going to the landed gentry,
		peasants were being dispossesed of their rights.

*	D. Was not entirely Western.

		1. Period of Islamic revivial.

		2. The Ottoman Empire looked inwardly to the Safavid
		Empire in Persia.

	E. Results

		1. Celali revolts were severly put down.

		2. The Safavids were defeated.

		3. The Northern borders of the Ottoman Empire were
		successfully protected.

IV. Tensions between the Center and the Periphery in the Ottoman
Empire (possible exam question)

	A. The Ottoman Empire deepened its presence in the provinces
	using a process called, "Ottomanization."

--------------------------------------------------------------------

October 23 DISCUSSION: Mansel, 133-239; Raymond, 291-318
--------------------------------------------------------

I. Three Themes for the Final Exam

	A. Westernization (Victorian) / Modernization

	B. Center / Periphery

		1. What is tearing the Ottoman Empire apart?

		2. What's holding the Ottoman Empire together?

	C. Palace / Mosque

		1. Who is trying to change things in the Ottoman
		Empire?

		2. Who is trying to preserve things in the Ottoman
		Empire?

			a. Palace = reform, change

			b. Mosque = preservation, no change

II. Wild Card = the Great Powers

	A. Austria signed an alliance to help preserve the Ottoman
	Empire.

		1. Once a long-term enemy, Austria is now an ally.

III. Mansel, pp. 133 - 239

	A. p. 137 Mehmed IV as a reformer. 

		1. Categories: Center / Periphery; Palace / Mosque

	B. p. 141 Story about Sabbatai Sevi.

		1. Appeared to Ottoman Jews as a Messiah.
	
		2. Converted to Islam after his capture.

	C. p. 149 Alexander Mavocordato.

		1. Funari Greek Christian.

		2. Becomes the prince of Walachia.

		3. Categories: Center / Periphery; Westernization

	D. Chapter 7: Cushions of Pleasure, p. 163

		1. Tobacco

		2. Coffee

		3. Opium

		4. Wine

	E. The nights of Ramadan, p. 179

	F. Chapter 8: Ambassadors and Artists, p. 189

		1. With no diplomatic immunity, ambassadors from
		other states would enter with fanfare and arrogance,
		flaunting their power.

			a. Categories: Westernization / Modernization

	G. Chapter 9: The Janissaries Frown, p. 220

		1. Displeasure between the Janissaries and the
		Sultans.

		2. p. 223 Many Janissaries were not soldiers.

			a. They are an economic power as a land-owning
			class of powerful persons.

		3. Categories: Center / Periphery

		4. When the Janissaries frown, the Sultan should
		be afraid.

		5. Ottoman troops were searching and executing
		Janissaries.

		6. Mehmed creates a non-Janissary army.

			a. Categories: Palace / Mosque

		7. The Revolutionary Guard of Iran are now becoming
		the very kind of thing the Janisaries were in their
		time.

			a. "The civilization of a military."

VI. Raymond, pp. 291 - 318

	A. 1798 Napoleon was sent to invade Egypt while the first
	French Revolution occurred in France.

		1. He brought scholars with him to study Egypt.

		2. Muhummad Ali takes over when Napoleon leaves.

		3. Egypt then breaks away from the Ottoman Empire.

V. Center / Periphery

	A. Egypt was the first Ottoman province to break away from
	the Empire.

	B. Serbia will be the second to break away from the Ottoman
	Empire.

	C. Unlike the thirteen American colonies, the former Ottoman
	provinces broke away separately and did not help each other
	out.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

October 26 Balkan Revolutions (1)
---------------------------------

I. Serbian Revolution:  Causes

	A. Austrian War of 1787-1791

	B. Selim III believed good government would cultivate
	Serbian loyalty

		1. At the time, the government was run by janissaries.

	C. Had to end janissary abuses:  Pasha Abu Bakr 1793 expelled
	the janissaries from Serbia

	D. Consulted the knezes

		1. Created twelve districts, each lead by one of
		twelver Grand Kenezes.

	E. Allowed Serbs to bear arms

	F. Pasvan-Oglu, Pasha of Bulgaria

		1. Allowed the janissaries to raid back into Serbia.

	G. 1798 An allied force of Serbs and Turks defeated
	Pasvan-Oglu and the janissaries

		1. A Christian force, lead by an Ottoman Pasha,
		defeats an Ottoman creation - the janissaries.

	H. Janissaries returned to Serbia

		1. The janissaries commtted many atrocities.

	I. 1804 Atrocities inspired a Serbian revolt

II. Serbian Revolution:  Karageorge  "Black" George

	A. Serbian hero

	B. Made war on the janissaries

	C. 1805 Defeat of the janissaries

	D. Karageorge insisted upon an agreement guaranteed by
	Austria

		1. An agreement could not be reached.

	E. 1807 Alliance with Russia

	F. 1807 War became a war for independence

	G. This revolt was against the janissaries, *not* the
	Sultan, Mahmud II.

III. Karageorge (George Petrovich) (1768?-1817)

	A. 1811 Russians and Ottomans ended their war

	B. 1813 Ottomans crushed the Serbian revolt, and Karageorge
	fled to Austria

IV. Serbian Revolution 1815 - Second Revolution

	A. Second revolution, this time led by Milosh Obrenovich

	B. Different strategy than Karageorge

		1. Opportunist

		2. Works the system to his advantage.

	C. Avoided battle

	D. Always ready to make a deal

	E. October 1815 Won Ottoman recognition of his authority
	in Serbia and promised loyalty to the sultan . best of both
	worlds

	F. Title:  Supreme Knez of Pashalik of Belgrade

		1. Kenz a Serbian title.

		2. Pashalik an Ottoman title.

V. Milosh Obrenovich (1780-1860) Serbia 1815-1839

	A. Agreement with the Sultan, December 1815

	B. Serbian rights, 1815

		1. Right to bear arms

		2. Right to create a national assembly, a council
		of elders (knezes), and a secular court

	C. Ottoman rights

		1. Serbs would pay taxes to Constantinople

		2. Ottoman landlords could keep their land

		3. Ottoman army could maintain garrisons in fortresses

	D. Milosh.s strategy toward the Ottomans

		1. Look for opportunities to gain more power for
		himself and more autonomy for Serbia

		2. Take advantage of Ottoman problems, especially
		the revolution in Greece

	E. Agreement of August 1830

VI. 1830 Agreement between Milosh and the Turks

	A. Milosh recognized as hereditary prince of Serbia

	B. Milosh and the Council of Elders would be in charge of
	administration

	C. Tribute would be paid to but not collected by the Ottomans

	D. Ottoman (non-Serbian) landlords would leave but would
	be compensated

		1. Land would then be owned by the peasants who
		worked it.

	E. Ottomans could remain in the fortresses

	F. Independent Serbian church

VII. Milosh's accomplishments 1815-1839

	A. Autonomy

	B. 1833 "The land belongs to those who till it."

		1. The strategy was to keep the land out of the
		hands of the Grand Knezes.

	C. Replaced Ottoman landlords with peasants who owned their
	own land

		1. Serbia has never collectivized land.

		2. No "land reform."

	D. Independent Serbian Orthodox Church

		1. Independent from the Christian authority in
		Constantinople.

	E. Schools and a publishing house

	F. Invited Serbs from abroad to return

	G. Milosh is the ONLY Servian ruler to die in his own bed
	as ruler.

	H. Karageorge and Milosh were both illiterate pig farmers.

		1. Muslim Ottomans won't steal pigs. The consumption
		of pork is forbidden to them.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

October 28 Balkan Revolutions (2)

I. GREEK REVOLUTION, 1821-1830

Category - Periphery verus Center

Questions - What should the Ottomans have done to keep the Empire
together? What would have been the ideological glue to keep the
Ottoman Empire Together.

	A. Primates (Greek landlords) 

		1. Were as much a source of oppression to Greek
		peasants as the Ottoman Turks themselves.

	B. Klephts (bandits)

		1. Resisted Primates and Albanian Landlords as much
		as they did the Ottoman Turks.

		2. Fought each other as much as they did the Ottomans
		and Primates.

	C. Philike Hetairia (Society of Friends)

		1. Society of literate Greek merchants.

		2. Were a dominant power in eighteenth-century
		Mediterranean trade.

		3. Assumed the vacuum left behind by French trading
		ships.

	D. Odessa

		1. Base location for the Society of Friends.

		2. From there Hetaria became interested in the
		possibility of a revolution in which Greece could
		free itself from Ottoman rule.

		3. From Odessa, the Society of Friends began to plot
		a revolution.

		4. The Society of Friends were not illiterate pig
		farmers, but where literate merchants.

		5. The revolution plans eventually failed.

	E. Ali Pasha of Ianina (1821)

		1. Ottoman Grand Vizier with an independent streak.

		2. In 1820, The Ottoman Empire tried to suppress
		Pasha using armed troops, leaving Greece emptied
		of Ottoman forces.

	F. Moldavia

		1. Funari Greeks were in control of the upper
		Balkans.

		2. The Romanians wanted to revolt against the Greeks.

	G. Peloponnesus (Morea)

	F. Klephts and priests

	G. Philike Hetairia flag

	H. Ali Pasha of Ianina

	G. Mohammed Ali, Pasha of Egypt, not a boxer

		1. Brought his own professional army from Egypt,
		led by his son.

	H. Ibrahim, MA.s son

	I. Alexander I, Tsar of Russia, 1801-1825

		1. Defeated Napoleon.

		2. Refused to help the Greek revolutionaries.

	J. Nicholas I, Tsar of Russia, 1825-1855

		1. Chose to help the Greek revolutionaries as they
		were fighting Russia's traditional enemy, the Ottoman
		Turks.

	K. George Canning, 1770-1827

		1. Foreign Minister (1822 - 1827)

		2. Wished for a Greek government to suppress the
		piracy that interfered with British trade in the
		Mediterranean.

	L. Mohammed Ali of Egypt

	M. Alexander I and Nicholas I of Russia

	N. Philhellenism

		1. Movement to help the Greek revolutionaries.

		2. Populist cause, led by newspaper appeals.

	O. Lord Byron

		1. Let the Phinellenic propaganda campaign.

		2. Later discovered the true criminal nature of the
		Greek bandit revolutinaries.

		3. Dies in Greece in 1824

	P. Duke of Wellington, 1769-1852

		1. Sent by foreign minister Canning to offer
		British-Russian mediateion that will provide a
		measure of Greek autonomy.

		2. The "Iron Duke.."

		3. The Ottoman Turks rejected the Russo-British
		mediation.

	Q. Battle of Navarino, October 20, 1827

		1. The Russo-British fleet destroys the Egyptian
		fleet.

	R. Russian war with the Ottoman Empire, 1828-1829

	S. Treaty of Adrianople, September 14, 1829

	T. London Protocol, 1830:  Greece became an independent monarchy

		a. Contrast with Serbian autonomy.

	U. British guys

		1. George Canning

		2. Duke of Wellington

			a. Made it clear the maintenance of the
			Ottoman Empire will be a cardinal British
			policy.

			b. Told the Ottoman Turks to stand up to
			the Russian demands.

	V. Battle of Navarino, 1827

II. Greek State-Building, 1827-1863

	A. John Capodistria

		1. Became president in 1828.

		2. Insisted upon,

			a. Rule of law.

			b. No corruption, bribes, selling of office
			or abuse of peasants.

		3. The British had a problem with him.

			a. He had served with the Russians.

			b. This is why the British advocated for a
			Monarchy.

	B. Otto of Bavaria, 1833-1862

		1. Came from the German kennel of royalty.

		2. Brought a regency council and an army of Bavarians.

		3. Disbanded and disarmed the revolutionaries.

		4. Died without children to ascend to the throne.

	C. Prince George of Denmark

		1. Ascended the throne and remained until 1914.

		2. The family reigned until 1967.

	D. A Dane is ruler of Greece and an Albanian is the ruler
	of Egypt. Exam question.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

October 30 Tanzimat (1)

I. Introduction

	A. Marks the beginning of Westernization and the search for
	an "ideological glue" for the Ottoman Empire.

	B. Perhaps too little, too late, too far, too quickly.

	C. Impressions of the West

		1. Military Might

		2. Economic Power and Material Wealth

		3. Cognitive Challenge: the West's pursuit of
		knowledge (especially the sciences) freed them from
		the fetters of religion.

II. Mahmud II

	A. Sent Ottoman young to France to study.

		1. Upon returning to the Empire, demanded reforms.

		2. There the young Ottomans found true principles
		of Islam among the European non-Muslims.

			a. Civic responsibility.

			b. Individual rights.

			c. Welfare for the poor.

III. Abdul Majid - the Tanzimat *really* begins during his Sultanship

	A. 1839 - Hatti-i Humayun

		1. Guaranteed full legal equality for all citizens
		of the Ottoman Empire.

	B. 1869 - Nationality Law

		1. Ended the Millet system.

	C. 1876 - First Constitutional Era

	D. New Institutions/Reforms under his Sultanship

		1. Introduction of the first Ottoman paper banknotes
		(1840)

		2. Reorganization of the army (1843-1844)

			a. Regular recruitment.

			b. Fixed terms of service.

		3. Adoption of an Ottoman national anthem and Ottoman
		national flag (1844)

		4. Reorganization of the finance system according
		to the French model.

		5. Reorganization of the Civil and Criminal Code
		according to the French model.

*		6. Establishment of the Meclis-i Maarif-i Umumiye
		(1845) which was the prototype of the First Ottoman
		Parliament (1876)

			a. Every entnic and religigous group in the
			Ottoman Empire was represented.

		7. Institution of a council of public instruction
		(1846)

		8. Establishment of the first modern universities
		and academies (1848)

		9. Abolition of an unfairly imposed capitation tax
		which imposed higher tariffs on non-Muslims (1856)

			a. Jizia Law abolished.

		10. Non-Muslims were allowed to become soldiers (1856)

		11. Various provisions for the better administration
		of the public service and for the advancement of
		commerce

		12. First railroads in the Ottoman Empire.

		13. Trade Guilds replaced by factories.

		14. Change in the structure of land ownership.

			a. Harbinger of one of the worst conflicts
			within the Ottoman Empire.

			b. Russians began buying land in the Ottoman
			Empire.

		15. The Ottoman Empire approves an Armenian nationalist
		movement and constitution and then the Ottoman army
		later massacred the Armenians.

IV. Some people were not happy with the Tanzimat Reforms

	A. The traditional patriarchy within the Millet system is
	lost.

	B. Assimilationist Fears: minorities are losing their
	individual identities to become Ottoman citizens.

	C. Mosaic (Islamic/Jewish) versus Melting Pot (pluralist)
	nations.

	D. Military service became obligatory for *ALL* Ottomans.

	E. A bid to produce an Ottoman identity in the Balkans
	failed.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

November 2 Tanzimat (2)

	One of the most important consequences of Tanzimat were
	these two opposing groups. Both were comprised of members
	of the bureaucratic elite who were educated and trained in
	France. These were firebrands who wanted to make things
	more liberal and progressive in the Ottoman Empire.

I. Young Ottomans - Favored an Islamic Ottoman Identity

	A. Timeline

		1. 1865 - Founding

		2. 1867 - Exiled to Paris

		3. 1871-2 Fades Away

	B. Wished for a more Turkish nationality, a new and purely
	Turkish language.

	C. Stressed their own ethnic heritage.

	D. Sought a new identity to stand out among the European
	nations, regardless of race, ethnicity or religion.

	E. The wearing of a fez becomes a national symbol of all
	Ottomans.

	F. Sought a revolution in regard to the following greviances
	against:

		1. Personal rule by small groups of elites.

		2. Foreign intervention of the Ottoman Empire.

		3. European cultural domination.

		4. Adoption of only the most superficial aspects
		of Western culture.

		5. Ottoman reform should be consistent with Islamic
		Law.

		6. Constitutinal law in the Ottoman Empire.

		* These grievances became very popular.

	G. Favored an Islamic Ottoman identity.

II. Young Turks - Committee of Union and Progress (CUP)

	A. Timeline

		1. 1908 - Movement begins.

		2. 1909 - Deported

		3. 1913 - CUP Seizes power.

	D. Enver Pasha

	E. Mehmet Tal'al

	F. Ahmed Jamal

	G. Favored a nationalist Ottoman identity.

	H. Proclamation of Eighteen Points for the Ottoman Empire (1908)

		1. The basis for the Constitution will be respect
		for the predominance of the national will. One of
		the consequences of this principle will be to require
		without delay the responsibility of the minister
		before the Chamber, and, consequently, to consider
		the minister as having resigned, when he does not
		have a majority of the votes of the Chamber.

		2. Provided that the number of senators does not
		exceed one-third the number of deputies, the Senate
		will be named as follows: one-third by the Sultan
		and two-thirds by the nation, and the term of
		senators will be of limited duration.

		3. It will be demanded that all Ottoman subjects
		having completed their twentieth year, regardless
		of whether they possess property or fortune, shall
		have the right to vote.  Those who have lost their
		civil rights will naturally be deprived of this
		right.

		4. It will be demanded that the right freely to
		constitute political groups be inserted in a precise
		fashion in the constitutional charter, in order
		that article 1 of the Constitution of 1293 A.H.
		[Anno Hegira=] be respected.

		7. The Turkish tongue will remain the official state
		language. Official correspondence and discussion
		will take place in Turkish.

		9. Every citizen will enjoy complete liberty and
		equality, regardless of nationality or religion,
		and be submitted to the same obligations. All
		Ottomans, being equal before the law as regards
		rights and duties relative to the State, are eligible
		for government posts, according to their individual
		capacity and their education. Non-Muslims will be
		equally liable to the military law.

		10. The free exercise of the religious privileges
		which have been accorded to different nationalities
		will remain intact.

		11. The reorganization and distribution of the State
		forces, on land as well as on sea, will be undertaken
		in accordance with the political and geographical
		situation of the country, taking into account the
		integrity of the other European powers.

		14. Provided that the property rights of landholders
		are not infringed upon (for such rights must be
		respected and must remain intact, according to law),
		it will be proposed that peasants be permitted to
		acquire land, and they will be accorded means to
		borrow money at a moderate rate.

		16. Education will be free. Every Ottoman citizen,
		within the limits of the prescriptions of the
		Constitution, may operate a private school in
		accordance with the special laws.

		17. All schools will operate under the surveillance
		of the state. In order to obtain for Ottoman citizens
		an education of a homogenous and uniform character,
		the officials schools will be open, their instruction
		will be free, and all nationalities will be admitted.
		Instruction in Turkish will be obligatory in public
		schools. In official schools, public instruction
		will be free. Secondary and higher education will
		be given in the public and official schools indicated
		above; it will use the Turkish tongue. Schools of
		commerce, agriculture, and industry will be opened
		with the goal of developing the resources of the
		country.

		18. Steps shall also be taken for the formation of
		roads and railways and canals to increase the
		facilities of communication and increase the sources
		of the wealth of the country. Everything that can
		impede commerce or agriculture shall be abolished.

Source:
Modern History Sourcebook: The Young Turks: Proclamation for the
Ottoman Empire, 1908.

Available Online:
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1908youngturk.html

III. Sultan Abdul Hamid - after 1870

	A. Seen by the Young Turks as a despot and a tyrant who
	used both the Young Ottomans and their own as a means of
	legitimizing his autocracy.

	B. The REAL autocrats were the Young Turks who sought a
	strong central authority to help keep the Ottoman Empire
	from fragmenting. 

	C. The Young Turks paid lip service to the Constitution to
	appear acceptable to European audiences.

	D. The post 1913 era was one of hte most autocratic, violent
	and despotic in Ottoman history.

		1. Armenian Movement (1913)

		2. Animosity between Arabs and Ottomans.

		3. Nationalists are called a "cancer" by historians.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

November 4 DISCUSSION, Mansel, 240-345 Mazower, 1-254

I. Categories

	A. Center/Periphery

	B. Mosque/Sultan

	C. Modernization/Westernization

II. Page references

 	A. Mazower

		1. p. 32 References to the Franks (French)

	B. Mansel

		1. Blasphemy is a crime in in Imperial religions.

		2. p. 82 Mystics were also known as Charlatans in
		the 20th Century.

		3. p. 319 (bottom) Zionist Theodore Hertzel.

			a. Journalist/Reporter

			b. Dreyfuls affair.

		4. p. 238 "hodge-podge"

		5. p. 221 This is where Anaturk grew up.

			a. Adovcated a completely secular,
			anti-religious identity.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

November 6 Crimean War

I. Crimean War, 1854-1856

	A. A truly bizarre war

		1. Fear of the Russians.

		2. Turkey the "sick little man of Europe."

		3. Relevant chapter in Mansel, "City of Marvels."

		4. This is the war in which nurse Florence Nightengale
		appears.

		5. British ambassador Stratford Canning's war.

	B. Russia versus the Ottoman Empire, Britain, and France

	C. British policy: Lord Palmerston

		1. Prevent Russian expansion in the Near East

			a. Palmerston did not want the Straits of
			Constantinople to be available to the
			Russians.

		2. Use the Ottoman Empire to do it

	D. Stratford Canning, British ambassador in Constantinople

		1. In Mansel, Stratford Canning advised the Ottoman
		Empire on how to govern itself.

II. French Policy

	A. 1690 Ottomans granted the French Catholic Church the
	right to have jurisdiction over some holy places

		1. Jerusalem

		2. Bethlehem

		3. Nazareth

	B. By the 19th century the vast majority of pilgrims were
	Russian Orthodox

		1. By then, post-Revolution France had become a
		secular nation.

	C. Russians got more and more concessions for Orthodox clergy

III. Steps toward war

	A. Louis Napoleon (elected president of France 1848, then
	Emperor Napoleon III in 1852)

		1. Nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte.

		2. Supporter of French Catholicism.

		3. Wanted the Ottoman Empire to honor the rights
		of French clerty in the Holy Lands by the Concessions
		first granted them.

	B. Tsar Nicholas I

		1. Was incensed by Napoleon's requests to the Ottoman
		Empire to honor their concessions to French Catholic
		clergy.

		2. The Russians occupied Moldavia and Walachia.

	C. 1853 Russian demanded more concessions at the holy places

		1. The Ottoman Empire refuses the Russian demands,
		due to the presence of British and French forces.

	D. Canning advised the Turks to reject them

	E. July 1853 Russians occupied Romania 

	F. Napoleon III (ruled as emperor 1852-1870) and Nicholas
	I (1825-1855)

	G. 1853 Conference in Vienna to work out a solution

	F. October 3, 1853 Turkish ultimatum to Russia

	G. November 30, 1853 Battle (?) of Sinope in the Black Sea

		1. Napoleon III called on the British to sweep the
		Russian flag from the Black Sea

	F. March 1854 Britain and France declared war on Russia

	G. Lord Palmerston resigns.

IV. Battle of Sinope Where do we fight?

	A. Baltic Sea?

	B. Black Sea, particularly Romania

		1. Summer 1854 Allied landings at Varna

		2. June 3, 1854 Vienna issued an ultimatum to
		Russians to evacuate Romania

		3. Russians not there anymore

		4. Austrian army entered Romania

	C. Russo-Ottoman Border along the Danube

		1. Austria refuses to permit fighting in Moldavia
		and Walachia.

V. How about fighting in the Crimea?

	A. If Sebastopol remained in Russian hands, London was
	doomed

		1. Remember the "domino effect" fallacy of the cold
		war?

	B. September 14, 1854 Allies landed in the Crimea

		1. Lord Cardigan lead the disastrous "Charge of the
		Light Brigade."

			a. Led to reforms in the British Army.

			b. Officers could no longer purchase their
			commissions.

	C. September 1855 Sebastopol fell to the Allies

VI. Peace Negotiations in Vienna

	A. March 1, 1855 Nicholas died and Alexander II became Tsar

		1. Alexander II (ruled 1855-1881)

	B. December 1855 Austrian ultimatum to the Russians

		1. Free passage of Danube mouth and new agreement
		for the Straits

		2. Protectorate of all Christians

		3. Neutral Black Sea

		4. Part of Bessarabia back to Turkey

	C. The Austrians threatened to go to war on the side of
	England, France and the Ottoman Empire.

	D. The Russian transportation system was not adequate to
	supply the Russian army in the Crimea.

VII. TREATY OF PARIS, MARCH 30, 1856
		
	A. European (not Russian) guarantees for Christians in
	Ottoman Empire

		1. Attempt to neutralize concessions for Russian
		Orthodox Chrisitans.

	B. Neutral passage of Straits, Black Sea, and Danube for
	all shipping

	C. Danube placed under the control of an international
	commission (still exists)

	D. Status of Moldavia and Walachia to be determined by an
	international conference

		1. Both passed a resolution that they did not want
		to be separate countries.

		2. Romanian Alexander John Cuza chosen by both
		Moldavia and Walachia to be their leader.

			1. Wanted to introduce land reform.

			2. Was forced to abdicate and was succeded
			by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,
			who was then proclaimed king as Carol I of
			Romania.

	E. Ottoman Empire admitted to Concert of Europe

	F. Romania an autonomous - but not independant - state.

		1. Center/Periphery Issue

--------------------------------------------------------------------

November 9 Balkan Crisis  1875 - 1878

Quote from a book review of "Museum of Innocense" by Orham Pamuk

	Foreigners, Pamuk notes in that book, love to enshroud his
	city in easy, abstract terms of "East and West"; for him,
	the real division at the heart of his culture is between
	local tradition and the imported new. And it is in giving
	that tension a vividly human, private face.in showing how
	it plays out in every piece of chewing gum or choice of a
	Sophia Loren movie.that he gives his theme distinction. It
	was his growing up in a secular, westward-looking family,
	Pamuk suggests, that moved him to seek out his country's
	indigenous, sometimes mystical traditions; a further irony
	is that he learned how to give Turkey its own voice by
	schooling himself in works from abroad.

SOURCE: Secret Love in the Lost City. Pico Iyer. The New York Review
of Books.

AVAILABLE ONLINE: http://www.nybooks.com/articles/23381

--------------------------------------------------------------------
November 9 Balkan Crisis  1875 - 1878 - Center/Periphery Category

I. Has it all 

	A. Revolution against the Turks

		1. Starts and finishes in the Balkans.

	B. Emergence of another Balkan people, the Bulgarians 

	C. War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire

	D. Ottoman reform

	E. Great Power conference to sort it all out

II. Revolution in Herzegovina, 1875 

	A. Long-range Causes 

		1. Southern part of todays Bosnia-Herzegovina

			a. Herzegovina, Gr. "Dutchy"

		2. Croats, Muslims, and Serbs

		3. Bosniaks = landlords

			a. Opposed Ottoman reforms and had responded
			to them by making dues on their Christian
			peasants more onerous

				1) Most peasants are Orthodox Serbs.

			b. Arms especially from Montenegro

			c. Are the most dominant social group.

			d. Present a strong conservative element.

			e. Ignored Tanzimat reforms.

			f. Christians started arming themselves.

			g. Are still called "Bosniaks" today.

		4. Most important city: Mostar

			a. Figuratively destroyed in the 1990's.

			b. Later rebuilt.

	B. Immediate causes 

		1. 1874 General crop failure 

		2. mid-1875 Good will visit by Emperor Francis
		Joseph of Austria to Dalmatia, the Austrian province
		just across the border

			a. Francis Joseph, ruled Austria/Hungary
			1848-1916

		3. Peasants in Herzegovina rose up 

		4. Spread to Bosnia

III. Revolution in Bulgaria 

	A. Inspired by Bosnia-Herzegovina 

	B. Bulgarian national consciousness 

		1. Usual pattern

		2. Small Bulgarian merchant class called the
		Chorbadji

		3. Began by supplying Ottoman army

		4. Invested in trade 

		5. Sponsored secular schools in Bulgaria because
		the Bulgarian church is run by Greeks.

			a. 80 secular schools by 1845.

IV. Bulgaria 

	A. Economic development 

		1. Opening of Danube really helped

		2. Rural bourgeoisie emerged

	B. Revolutionary movement led by the children of the
	Chorbadji

		1. Drive for political autonomy

		2. George S. Rakovsky  (1821 - 1867)

		3. Bulgarian Legion

	C. Autonomy for the Bulgarian Church  - 2nd Movement

		1. Top posts held by Greeks

			a. Top posts were purchased from the Sultan
			by Greeks.

		2. Lower clergy (Bulgarian) threatened to become
		Uniates

		3. Russia put pressure on the Sultan and the Greek
		Patriarch to make concessions

		4. 1870 Bulgarian Exarchate

			a. For an autonomous Bulgarian church.

			b. Political move to split the Greeks and
			Bulgarians.

				1) "Divide and Conquer"

		5. 1872 Patriarch of Constantinople excommunicated

		6. Bulgarian church leaders

	D.  Pan-Slavism

		1. Sponsored by Russia

			a. Russians were also slavs.

			b. To help create a feeling of unity among
			ALL slavs.


			c. Idea of Russia as one big slavic state.


			d. Instrument of Russian foreign policy.

		2. Moscow Slavonic Benevolent Committee, which
		brought Bulgarian students to Russia

			a. Based upon a plan to promote the Great
			Russian Orthodox Tradition.

			b. Students became left-wing revolutionaries,
			instead.

		3. These students became attracted to revolution

	E.  May 1876 Bulgarian revolution

		1. Turks had to rely on militia (the Bashi-Bazouks
		mostly Circassians and Tartars) to deal with the
		Bulgarian revolution

		2. The Horrors Observed by western reporters

			a. Western reporters documents on how awful
			the Ottomans, but not on how awful the
			others' were.

			b. Reporting was very Western-oriented and
			unfair to the Ottoman Turks.

	F.  September 6, 1876 William Gladstone published The
	Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East

		1. Turks must be driven from the province they have
		desolated and profaned

		2. A very anti-Ottoman document published by a
		leading British politiican.

	G. Serbia got involved

		1. Prince Milan Obrenovich had ambitions to expand
		Serbia

		2. Official Russian policy:  Dont get involved.

			a. Political "window-dressing" to retain
			the favor of Western Powers.

		3. Unofficial Russian policy: plausable deniability.

			a. Nicholas Ignatiev, Russian ambassador
			in Constantinople

			b. A. N. Kartsov, Russian consul in Belgrade

		4. Add Bosnia to Serbia

			a. Tantamount to declairing war on the Turks.

	H. Serbia (war with Turkey)

		1. June 30, 1876 Serbia declared war on the Ottoman
		Empire

		2. July 2, Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman
		Empire

		3. In command of the Serbian army was General Michael
		Chernyaev, a Russian

			a. Brings 3,000 volunteers with him.

		4. By September 1 the Serbian army was effectively
		destroyed

		5. October 31 Armistice forced by Russia

	I. In Constantinople

		1. 1876 Things were terrible

			a. Internal upheaval

			b. War with Serbia

			c. Russian saber rattling

			d. Bad press abroad

		2. Benjamin Disraelis foreign policy

			a. Keeping the Russian Navy out of the
			Mediterranean Sea.

			b. Keep Gladstone out of 10 Downing St.

			c. Push for Ottoman Reform.

			d. Disraeli is a chief rival of Gladstone.

	B. December 1876 Constantinople Conference:  Purpose

		1. Recommend reforms to the Ottomans

		2. Diffuse criticism at home

		3. Deny the Russians a pretext to attack

	C.  The Turks were already working on reform

		1. Midhat Pasha, 1822-1883

		2. May 1876 Removed Abdul-Aziz

		3. Installed Abdul Hamid II

		4. December 23, 1876 Midhat Pasha issued a new
		constitution for Turkey

	D.  New Constitution

		1. Parliament elected by broad suffrage

		2. Freedom of the press, religion, and individual

		3. Equality of taxation


		4. January 20, 1877 Constantinople Conference
		disbanded

		5. Abdul Hamid dismissed Midhat Pasha and exiled
		him

		6. Abdul Hamid never abolished the constitution,
		just paid no attention to it

VI. Russo-Tukrish War

	A. April 24, 1877 Russia declared war

		1. The Russian Army was already camped outside of
		Constantinople.

			a. Refused to take the city in fear of bad
			press.

	B. Got hung up at Fortress of Plevna

		a. The Ottomans had dug trenches and were armed
		with U.S.-made repeating rifles.

	C. December 10, 1877 took Plevna

	D. End of January 1878 camped outside Constantinople

	E. January 31 Treaty of San Stefano

VII. Treaty of San Stefano  March 3, 1878

	A. Recognized Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro as independent
	states

	B. Creation of Bulgaria

		1. Autonomous

		2. Christian government and national militia

		3. Boundaries included all of todays Bulgaria,
		Macedonia to Albania, and a long seacoast

VIII. Congress of Berlin, June 13-July 13, 1878

	A. Otto von Bismarck, "the honest broker"

		1. Quote: "I do not care about those people down
		there."

	B. Task was to reduce the size of Bulgaria and give everyone
	a little something to take away

VIX. Treaty of Berlin

	A. Autonomous Bulgaria

		1. Eastern Rumelia separated from Bulgaria as an
		autonomous state and led by a Christian governor.

	B. Austrian occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina

	C. Independent Serbia, Montenegro,and Romania

		1. Serbia is no longer an autonomous, but now an
		independent state.

	D. Russian annexation of southern Bessarabia

	E. British occupation of Cyprus

	F. French occupation of Tunis

	G. Sandschak Novabazar (1878 - 1908) occupied by Austria
	to keep the Serbs out of Monte Negro.

	H. By 1914, in a series of tragic events, the Ottomans will
	lose all territory west of Thrace and the Maritza River.

X. Abdul Hamid II, ruled1876-1909

	A. Reforms

		1. Schools

			a. University of Istanbul

		2. Railroads and Telegraphs (1900 beginning of the
		Hejaz Railway to connect Damascus with Mecca but
		never completed)

	B. 1889 Committee of Union and Progress (CUP)

	C. 1908 Young Turk Revolt

	D. 1908 Austrian annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina

--------------------------------------------------------------------

November 11 Minorities and Nationalism in the Arab World

I. Pan Islamism

	A. A response to modernity, nationalism, and Ottoman reforms.

	B. Jamal Al-Afghani

		1. Prominent leader of Pan Islam movement.

		2. Maintains that nationalism is a backwards,
		regressive, tribalistic ideology.

		3. Does not reveal where he is from.

		4. Rebuffed westernization.

		5. Considered a "pamphleteer" and not much of a
		Muslim.

		6. Regarded the Pan-Islam movement as a political
		movement and NOT an ideological one.

	C. In response to modernity, nationalism, westernization
	and Ottoman reforms, became the dominant ideology in Arab
	states.

II. Arab Nationalism - Center/Periphery Category

	A. Founded by Michel Aflaq, a Christian Arab.

	B. From a non-historical (ahistorical) point-of-view (POV):

		1. Began in 1914 with an Arab revolt, led by Sherif
		Hussein of Mecca.

			a. Center/Periphery Category

			b. Romanticized in America by the motion
			picture, "Lawrence of Arabia."

	C. From a academic/historical point of view:

		1. Was Sherif Hussein a nationalist?

			a. No.

			b. Hussein was an opportunist seeking an
			Empire of his own.

			c. The Ottoman Turks called him, "The Arab
			who stabs the Turks in the back."

			d. The academic community considers Hussein
			a peripheral leader who sought an empire
			or state in his own name.

		2. Arab nationalism as an ideology did not begin
		until Michel Aflaq.

		3. Lawrence of Arabia was a British officer serving
		the Empire.

	D. To be an Arab

		1. Means that one speaks the Arabic language.

		2. Means that one is from the Arabian Peninsula.

		3. Does NOT mean that one is necessarily a Muslim.

			a. There are also Christian and Jewish
			Arabs.

		4. As opposed to being an ethnic Turk.

			a. One must be a Turkish speaker.

			b. One ALSO must be a Muslim.

			c. One can be a Turkish national without
			being a Muslim, but non-Muslims cannot be
			considered ethnically a Turk.

	E. Not everyone accepts the ideology of Arab nationalism.

	F. The Arab nationalist movement turned out to be a failure
	to unite the Arabic speaking peoples from their diverse
	cultures.

		1. The following video helps to explain why.

III. "A Question of Arab unity- Why Unity?- 28 Jan 08- Ep 1- Part 1"

	http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nwpx-mJgy38

--------------------------------------------------------------------

The second paper is due Friday, December 4.

Here are the instructions:

The paper should be four pages long (about 1200 words) The two books
are both examples of travel literature. Matija Mazuranicwas a member
of a distinguished Croatian family who toured Bosnia in 1839-40.
Edith Durham was a Victorian English woman who wrote about Albania
in 1907-1908. I do not want a summary or a review of the books. I
want you to write on a topic in these two books that you found
particularly interesting, informative, enlightening, or curious.
Broad topics might include the status and role of women, the role
of revenge in these societies, the status and role of weapons in
those societies, and the relationship of town to countryside.
Another possible topic would be government --- who seems to be in
charge of preserving order, providing a guarantee of justice,
collecting taxes, and other functions of government, and how they
carry out their duties. Another topic could be religion --- what
do people think consistutes being a "good Muslim" or a "good
Christian?" What are the religious practices in both lands and how
do they compare? Be sure to include references to both books and
not all from the first few pages. Use a simple reference format
such as (Durham, 135) or (Mazuranic, 43) and put the reference next
to the quote or idea�you wish to cite.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

November 13 Turkish Nationalism

I. Introduction

	A. Was NOT a failure (like Arab Nationalism).

	B. Took a deep root.

	C. Concerned Islamic Identity.

		1. Turkish nationalism has a complete culture and
		philosopy in common.

	D. Why did Arab nationalism fail?

		1. Had only a language in common among a diversity
		of ethnicities, cultures, philosophies and religions.

	E. Question of Minorities

		1. Iqbal

			a. Indian poet who became an ardent
			pan-Islamist.

			b. He was also an ardent critic of the
			West.

			c. Quotes:

				1) "Oh, Europeans ... the world is
				not a shop."

				2) "poisoned cup" --> the secular
				west.

				3) "antidote" --> Islam

		2. Egypt: Armenian/Christian Grand Vizier with an
		independent streak.

II. Timeline

	A. Turanian Society founded in 1839

		1. Sought the promotion of a unique Turkish "race"
		and language.

		2. Included the Young Ottomans

	B. Turkish Hearth Society founded in 1908

	C. Committee for Union and Progress founded in 1906

		1. Included the Young Turks.

	D. Article 301 of the Turkish Penal Code

		1. Forbade the public insult of

			a. The Turkish Nation

			b. A Turkish Citizen

			c. The Turkish Parliament

		3. Punishable by six months to three years of jail
		time.

	E. Websites deemed as insulting to Ataturk, the founder of
	modern Turkey and a national hero, are currently being
	blocked.

	F. Proclamation of a parliamentary state in 1923.

	G. The Caliphate was abolished in 1924.

	H. The Office of the Minister of Religious Affars was
	abolished.

	I. Pious endowments were abolished.

	J. Islamic religious courts were abolished.

	K. Turkey adopted the secular laws of Switzerland.

	L. The Fez was abolished.

	M. All Sufi orders were disbanded.

		1. Because of their link with Imperialism.

	N. The calendar was "reformed" from Islamic to Gregorian.

	O. Late 1920's

		1. Disestablishment of State religion in Turkey.

		2. Latin alphabet adopted.

			a. Quote from a scholar: "... meant a
			general state of amnesia has been imposed
			upon the Turks."

		3. Islamic call to prayer recited in Turkish instead
		of the traditional Arabic language.

III. Anatolianism

	A. A racial nationalist theory that claims to trace the
	Turks back to the earliers Anatolian inhabitants.

	B. Includes a claim that the Turks are decended from
	Sumerians.

IV. Ziya Gokalb (d 1924)

	A. Considered the most influential thinker on Ataturk.

	B. His claims about Ataturk include that the founder of
	modern Turkey,

		1. Rejected pan-Islamism.

		2. Rejected connections with the Middle East.

		3. Wished Turks to be viewed as Europeans.

			a. Agreeable to upper-middle-class Turks.

		4. Perceived a "double-speak" with Turkish nationality
		and hyprocracy on the part of the Western Nations
		and of Christianity.

V. National Paradox

	A. Western Perspective

		1. Nationalism becomes one of the most successful
		movements against colonialism.

			a. Perfect vehicle for an anti-colonial
			community.

			b. When based upon the principle of
			self-determination.

	B. That which claims to glorify the local is actually very
	spurious to the local.

		1. In reality, local culture is neglected for the
		development an d propigation of a "national culture."

		2. Nationalism tries to eradicate local cultures
		by "nationalizing" them.

	C. What about Muslim non-Turks?

		1. Kurds are offically ignord by the Turkish.

	D. Nationalism tends to create a sense of superiority and
	zenophobia.

		1. Against those who do not fit in with the national
		identity.

			a. Genocide
			
			b. Ethnic cleansing.

			c. Armenian Genocide (see "VI." below)

		2. Against those to do not fit in the the national
		religious identity.

			a. Religious groups.

			b. A political agenda against a particular
			religion or religious identity.

	E. The most successful "nation" states are not "nations."

		1. United States

			a. Is not a "nation" per se, but a union
			of states.

		2. The most successful nationalist movemements
		occur in second and third-world countries.

			a. Response to colonialism.

			b. Anti-colonial vehicle.

	F. Nationalism can be seen as a return to tribalism.

VI.  Short documentary on Turkish Nationalism and the Armenian
Genocide.

	http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-6EwO5w2DzE&feature=fvw

--------------------------------------------------------------------

November 16 Ottoman Empire Diplomatic Events 1878-1908

I. 1878-1908 European Context

	A. The Treaty of Berlin, 1878

	B. After an initial protest, Russia was satisfied

	C. 1881 Renewal of the Alliance of the Three Emperors League
	with Germany and Austria

	D. Turned to Middle East (Persia) and Asia (China and
	Manchuria)

	E. Austria was satisfied

	F. Occupied Bosnia Herzegovina

	G. Agreements with Serbia (1881) and Romania (1883)

	H. Britain was retreating from its role as guarantor of
	the Ottoman Empire

		1. Once the traditional defender of the Ottoman
		Empire.

			a. Reason: to keep the Russian navy out of
			the Mediterranean Sea.

			b. The opening of the Suez canal eliminated
			Russia as a threat.

	I. 1869 Suez Canal opened

		1. Was a boon to the British Empire beyond anything
		they'd ever imagined.

		2. Gave the British Empire reason enough to pay
		increasing attention to Egypt.

	J. Ismail Pasha, Khedive of Egypt

		1. Acquired terrible debts with frightening frequency.

		2. The British Empire became worried over Pasha's
		increasing debt.

		3. Egypt came to the verge of bankruptcy in 1878
		and the British Empire offered to manage the debt
		in exchange for control of the treasury, and other
		concessions.

	K. Colonel Ahmed Urabi

		1. Egyptian nationalist(sic).

		2. Appealed to Ismail Pasha to get rid of the
		foreign influences.

		3. Was appointed Secretary of War in 1882.

	L. 1882 Franco-British fleet arrived before Alexandria

		1. To essentially threaten the Egyptians "... not
		to do anything stupid."

		2. When the British opened fire and shelled
		Alexandria, the French ships later withdrew, and
		Pasha asked the British Empire for protection.

	M. August/September 1882 British occupied Egypt

		1. Egypt effectively became a part of the British
		Empire.

	N. 1898 British occupied Sudan

	P. 1880 British negotiated an agreement with the sheik of
	Bahrain

	Q. 1899 British negotiated an agreement with the sheik of
	Kuwait

		1. To gain access to the Persian Gulf.

	R. British sphere of influence as of 1914.

II. 1897 = A good year

	A. Bad omen:  British/Italian agreement to preserve the
	status quo in the Mediterranean lapsed

	B. But Austro-Russian agreement to maintain the status quo
	in the Balkans

	C. Austria wanted to focus on domestic issues

	D. Russia was more deeply involved than ever in the Middle
	East and Asia Berlin-Baghdad Railway

	E. 1888 Turks granted a concession to a German syndicate
	to build a railroad from Constantinople to Ankara

		1. This was a private company, not a government
		enterprise.

	F. Then to Baghdad and the Persian Gulf

	G. 1903 Formation of Baghdad Railway Company to build a
	highway to the Persian Gulf

		1. British influence in Bahrain and Kuwait "cut-off"
		the railway's expansion to the Persian Gulf.

	F. 1913 Worked out with German government

II. Anglo-German Naval Race

	A. 1898 Admiral Tirpitz presented a bill to the German
	Parliament to create a battle fleet

	B. British reaction

		1. Built more ships

		2. "Dreadnaught" class ships.

		3. Bring ships to Scapa Flow (north of Scotland)
		to create a sphere of British Naval influence in
		the North Sea.

	D. Negotiated treaties to bring ships to home waters

		1. 1902 British/Japanese Treaty (Asian Fleet)

		2. 1904 British/French Treaty (Mediterranean Fleet)

		3. 1907  British/Russian Treaty (Persian Gulf/Indian
		Ocean)

		4. Russia was no longer a threat; Germany was

		5. The British Empire is no longer present to
		protect the Ottoman Turks.

III. Macedonia

	A. Claims based on population:

		1. Bulgarian statistics (1900):  2,258,224 of whom
		52% were Bulgarians, 22% Turks, 10% Greeks, 5.7%
		Albanians and the rest Gypsies, Serbs, Jews, and
		Vlachs

		2. Greek statistics (1904):  1,724,818 of whom 39%
		were Greeks, 37% Turks, 19% Bulgarians, no Serbs,
		no Albanians, the rest Gypsies, Jews, and Vlachs

		3. Serbian statistics (1889):  2,879,620 of whom
		71% were Serbs, 8% Turks, 7.3% Greeks, 6% Albanians,
		2% Bulgarians, and the rest Gypsies, Jews, and
		Vlachs

	B. Terrorist Organizations:

		1. Serbs = Society of St. Sava

		2. Greeks = Ethnike Hetairia

		3. Bulgarians (the big one) = Internal Macedonian
		Revolutionary Organization or IMRO

			a. Quotes from Mazower

			... creeping down into Greek Territory.

			... sinister force in Constantinople.

	C. 1903 Revolt

	D. Austria and Russia proposed dividing Macedonia into
	zones policed by the great powers

		1. Ottomans agreed but it was never implemented

			a. The details were never worked out.

		2. Macedonia was still a part of the Ottoman Empire.

	E. 1908 is upon us, can 1914 be far behind?

		1. Young Turks revolt.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

November 18 DISCUSSION: Durham, all; Maurani, all.

High Albania BY M. Edith Durham

http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/durham/albania/albania.html

London: Edward Arnold. Publishers to the India Office. 1909

I. Durham
	A. The Albanian Virgin - Albanian Custom

		1. Women who never married were permitted to dress
		like, and interact with men.


	B. Durham, p. 209 To be a Good Christian,

		"On Sunday ..."

		"... shot Muslims wherever ..."

		"Of the Turkish names ..."

		"Selling daughers ..."

		"Torture of the Soul ..."

		"... keep the fasts and be buried on consecrated
		ground.

	C. Durham on Albanian Fascinations

		1. Tobacco

		2. Firearms/Weapons

			a. "The Primeval and his 'beloved'."

		3. Love

	D. Durham on the status of women in Albania.

		1. "The young Turk is the son of an old Turk."

		2. "Matrimony is the root of all evil."


	E. Durham on the Harem.

		1. British gentlemen's fasciation with the Harem.

II. Maurani

	A. To be a good Muslim

		1. "throw snowballs at passing Christians for
		coinage."

	B. Musilms and Christians in the Balkans were co-opting
	each other's colture while denouncing each other at the
	same time.

	C. Was a politically-correct Habsburg slav (Swabian) from
	an upper-middle-class background on a pan-slavic journey.

		1. He considered Bosnians to be his own kin.

		2. Observed and wrote from a Western perspective.

		3. Was eager to learn about the Balkans.

		4. After the Illinian movement, came the Hapsburg
		movement.

	D. Honor in the Balkans

		1. "It is wise never to violate their honor."

	D. Why did his journey fail?

		1. Maurani was Serbian-Croatian and a Christian.

		2. Most Serbs are Muslim.

		3. Maurani was a Hapsburg (Swabian) Slav, from an
		upper-middle-class upbringing and tavelled with
		the Pasha.

III. Tribalism

	A. Has been more devisive than religion, ethnicity or
	nationalism.

	B. Tribal customs of inheriting a widow has biblical
	connotations.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

November 20 Ottoman Empire on the Eve of World War I

I. 1908-1914

	A. Young Turks

		1. Were discontent over the lack of pay.

		2. Re-issued the Constitution of 1876.

	B. Third Army Corps in Macedonia (Salonica)

		1. Headquarters of the Young Turks.

	C. July 1908 Young Turks became part of government

		1. By the Sultan's appointment.

	D. 1909 Failed counterrevolution by the mosque with complicity
	of Abdul Hamid

	E. Abdul Hamid exiled to Salonica, replaced by Mehmed V,
	his brother Abdul Hamid and Mehmed V

		1. Salonica fell to the Greeks in 1912.

		2. Troops stationed there were those that had saved
		Constantinople.

		3. Now, the Ottoman Empire lay helpless.

II. Bosnian Crisis, 1908

	A. Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal, Austria foreign minister and
	the Annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina

		1. Wished for Austrians to be proud to be Austrians
		in the midst of internal troubles in Austria.

		2. Bosnia-Herzegovina is still Ottoman, but administered
		by Austria.

		3. Without permission by the Great Powers, an
		annexation would have been an violation of the
		Treaty of Berlin.

		4. Considered Russia a problem and a threat.

	B. Alexander Izvolsky, Russian foreign minister

		1. Wanted a way to get Russian warships into the
		Mediterreanean Sea.

	C. September 16 Deal:  Izvolsky would approve annexation
	of Bosnia in exchange for Austrian support for opening the
	Straits to Russian warships

		1. Aehrenthal told Izvolsky that the annexation
		would be announced on October 6.

		2. Izvolsky never told his government of the deal.

	D. October 4 Aehrenthal announced annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina

		1. Claimed to never had made such a promise to Izvolsky.

	E. Crisis to March 1909

	F. Other powers were inspired to act upon Ottoman territory.

III. Italian invasion of Tripoli

	A. In Bosnian crisis no one asked the Ottomans what they
	thought

	B. September 11, 1911 Italians demanded cession of Tripoli
	to Italy

		1. The Italian Navy threatened to shell the
		Dardanelles if the Ottomans did not comply.

	C. October 18, 1912 Treaty of Ouchy (Switzerland) Ottomans
	ceded Tripoli and the Dodecanese Islands to Italy

	D. The Great Powers are no longer interested in protecting
	the "Sick Little Man of Europe," the Ottoman Empire.

IV. Balkan Wars, 1912-1913

	A. March 1912 Serbia and Bulgaria allied against the Ottoman
	Turks.

	B. May 1912 Greece and Montenegro joined the Serbian/Bulgarian
	alliance

	C. October 1912 Invasion of Ottoman territory

	D. December 1912 Ottomans were defeated but war continued

		1. By means of resistance from pockets of Young
		Turk Ottoman soldiers.

	E. May 30, 1913 Treaty of London

	F. But on June 29, 1913 the Bulgarian army, with King
	Ferdinand.s blessing, attacked the Serbian and Greek armies,
	which led to the Second Balkan War

		1. The Balkan powers kept pushing for more Ottoman
		territory.

	G. Serbia, Greece, Romania, and the Ottoman Empire joined
	to defeat Bulgaria

	H. Serbia acquired Kosovo and some of Macedonia

	I. Bulgaria acquired some of Macedonia

	J. Greece acquired Greek Macedonia including Salonica

	K. Montenegro acquired a portion of the Sandjak of Novi
	Bazar

	G. Albania created as an independent state at Austria.s
	insistence

		1. To deny the Ottoman Turks access to the Adriatic
		sea.

V. Ottoman Territorial Losses, 1878-1914

	A. To Britain:  Cyprus (1878), Egypt (1882), Kuwait (1899)

	B. To Russia:  Batum and Kars (1878)

	C. To Austria:  Bosnia (1878 and 1908)

	D. To Italy:  Tripoli and the Dodecanese Islands (1912)

	E. To France:  Tunisia (1878-1881)

	F. To independence along with territory:  Serbia, Romania,
	Montnegro (1878), Bulgaria (1908), Albania (1913)

	G. In a little over a generation, the Ottomans lost *this*
	much territory.

VI. Young Turk Policy

	A. The Young Turks realized that preservation of the Ottoman
	Empire had ceased to be a principle of European great power
	diplomacy

	B. And that reforms until now had been inadequate

	C. The only way for the Ottoman Empire to survive was if
	it could create a military force that could protect it

VII. Alliance with Germany

	A. Enver Pasha, Minister of War

		1. A Young Turk, himself.

	B. German military mission led by General Liman von Sanders

	C. August 2, 1914 Ottoman/German alliance

	D. August 3 Enver declared martial law, issued mobilization
	orders, informed the government that all major decisions
	would be made by General Headquarters, and ordered the
	mining of the Dardanelles and Bosporus

	E. August 3 But also announced Ottoman neutrality

		1. Pasha knew the Ottoman army was not ready.

Enver Pasha and Liman von Sanders

VIII. Goeben and Breslau

	A. The Ottoman navy and the British

		1. In Scotland, two warships were being built for purchase by
		the Ottomans.

		2. These were confiscated by Churchill *after* the
		Ottomans had paid for them.

	B. Goeben and Breslau

		1. Modern German ships of war, one a Battle Cruiser,
		the other, a Light Cruiser.

		2. Arrived in the neutral port of Constantinople.

	C. Said Halim, Grand Vizier

	D. Admiral Wilhelm Souchon

		1. His ship and crew were sold to the Ottomans for
		2 million pounds.

		2. Himself and officers were photographed, each
		now wearing a Fez.

		3. All this was a great adventure to them.

	E. October 28 the Goeben (now the Sultan Selim) shelled
	Odessa

	F. November 2, 1914 Russia declared war

		1. World War I actually started the day before.

	G. November 11 Sultan Mohammed V declared jihad against
	Britain, France, and Russia

	H. Film

Goeben as Sultan Selim

--------------------------------------------------------------------

November 23 Ottoman Empire in World War I (1)

I. Naval attack on Dardanelles

	A. March 18, 1915

		1. Trench warfare has set in the west.

		2. Grand Duke Nichlas of Russia messaged Lord
		Kitchener for an attach on the Ottoman EMpire to
		relieve pressure on Russia and put the Ottoman
		Turks out of the war.

		3. Winston Churchill was enthusiastic about the
		idea and sked the Royal Navy if they would take on
		an expidion to the Dardanelles.

		4. At this time, Briitsh warships posted to the
		Home Islands had been riding anchor in port, out
		of fear of German submarines.

	B. 16 warships, 12 British and four French.

		1. The waters here were mined and shores surrounding
		them were fortified.

	C. Losses:  three older battleships, three out of action,
	four damaged, all by mines

		1. Could the Anglo-French fleet do this alone?

		2. Quote from Winston Churchill

			"The Dardanelles could have been won had
			the Anglo-French Flett not turned back."

		3. Gallipoli would have to be secured by ground
		forces.

		4. Where would the ground forces come from? Greece?

			a. The Greek Prime Minister wanted
			Constantinople as a concession for Greek
			participation in the Dardanelles campaign
			and the Russians "threw a fit" when they
			found about this.

	D. March 19:  Decision that the Gallipoli Peninsula would
	have to be secured by ground forces

	E. Film: "Gallipoli" http://www.bloodandoil.com

II. Constantinople

	A. A series of letters represented the first of the secret
	agreements

	B. British (March 12, 1915) and French (April 10, 1915)
	agreed to cede Constantinople and the Straits to Russia
	with conditions:

		1. That the war be fought to a successful conclusion.

			a. Russia failed to win the war, due in
			part, to the Bolshevik Revolution.

		2. That France and Britain accomplish their plans
		in the [Middle] East and elsewhere.

			a. The Dardanelles campaign turned out to
			be a failure.

III. Attack on Gallipoli

	A. British 29th Division and the Australian and New Zealand
	Army Corps (Anzacs)

	B. Liman took over the preparations to defend Gallipoli
	for Turkey

		1. Gallipoli and the Dardanelles are prime real
		estate for defenders.

	C. Colonel Mustapha Kemal

		1. The future Anaturk, founder of modern Turkey.

		2. Led Ottoman troops who were fighting for both
		their homeland and their faith.

			a. Ottoman troops would shout, "Allah!" in
			combat.

			b. Anzac/British troops would shout,
			"Bastards!"

			c. Ottoman troops would wonder if "Bastard"
			was a British god.

	D. D-Day:  April 25, 1915

	E. Gallipoli is one of the most defensible pieces of
	geography in the world.

		1. A miniture version of the Western Front.

IV. April 1915-January 1916

	A. June:  Churchill removed as First Lord of the Admiralty

	B. August:  30,000 more British land at Suvla Bay

	C. November:  Kitchener proclaimed the campaign ?A wastage
	of officers and men?

	D. January 8-9 Evacuation

V. Gallipoli casualties

	A. Hard to tell exactly

	B. 252,000 (48,000 killed) British out of 490,000 committed

	C. 33,600 Anzac casualties (included in the British total)
	of which 11,200 were killed (population of Australia in
	1914 = 4.5 million, New Zealand = 1.1 million)

	D. 250,000 (60,000 killed) Turks of 500,000 committed

	E. Waltzing Mathilda

		1. YouTube video featuring the Pogues.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

November 25 Ottoman Empire in World War I (2)

Armenians

	A. Bad blood from the 1890s

	B. September 1895 Armenian revolutionaries attack the
	Ottoman government buildings

	C. August 1896 Armenians seize the Ottoman Bank

	D. Unleashed the mob

		1. Turkish citizens were encouraged to go out into
		the streets of Constantinople and kill Armenians.

	E. Perhaps 300,000 Armenians killed in the 1890s, most in
	the east

	F. Battle of Sarikamish, December 22, 1914-January 17, 1915

		1. Ottoman troops attempted to encircle the Russians.

		2. The Ottomans found themselves encircled by the
		Russians.

		3. Was a disaster and the disaster was blamed upon
		the Armenians.

	G. February 1915 Enver ordered all Armenians serving in
	the armed forces to join labor battalions

			1. To disarm them and get them out of the
			battle zone.

			2. Armenians are Christians.

			3. Some had volunteered to serve with the
			Russian Army.

	H. April 1915 Conflict in Van, eastern Anatolia

	I. April 24, 1915 Government ordered the arrest of Armenian
	leaders in Constantinople

	J. May 29, 1915 Ottoman government issued the Temporary
	Law of Deportation allowing deportation of Armenians from
	anywhere in the Empire to Syria

	K. September 1915 Ottoman government issued Law on Abandoned
	Properties, giving itself the power to confiscate any
	Armenian property

	L. The massacre was underway

	M. PBS Video

*               1. First Genocide of the 20th Century.

			a. Reveals the logic of the brutalization
			in total war.

		2. Ethnic cleansing of ethnic Armenians near the
		Russian Empire.

		3. Witnessed and photographed by Armand Werner.

		4. The Turkish government still today, denies the
		genocide.

	A. Armenian Relief

		1. In order to be able to provide relief to the
		Armenians, the United States never declares war on
		the Ottoman Empire.

			a. The Armenians asked for an American
			presence in the relief effort.

	B. Hitler's words

		The Legacy of Warld War I

			I have given orders to my Death Units to
			exterminate without mercy or pity men,
			women and children belonging to the
			Polish-speaking race. It is only in this
			manner that we can acquire the vital
			territory which we need. After all, who
			remembers today the extermination of the
			Armenians?

				Adolf Hitler, 22 August 1939

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World War I in the Middle East

I. Mesopotamian Campaign

	A. Run from Delhi fought with Indian soldiers serving the
	Empire.

	B. British Advances

		1. Basra

		2. Kut-el-Amara (September 1915)

		3. Basra (film) http://www.bloodandoil.com/

		4. Reasons: To protect and create a better defense
		of vital oil fields.

	C. Brtish Defeats

		1. Retreat to Kut (December 1915)

		2. Siege of Kut (December 1915 - April 1916)

			a. Every expedition to relieve the siege
			fails.

		3. Kut

			a. Lost to the Ottoman Turks.

	D. British recovery and offensive

		1. Sir Stanley Maude, 1864 - 1917

			a. Great logistical commander.

		2. 250,000 Indian, British and Anzac forces facin
		40,000 Ottoman Turks.

		3. Entered Baghdad March 11, 1917

		4. Baghdad (film) http://www.bloodandoil.com

II. British in Mesopotamia

	A. "Our armies do not come into your cities and lands as
	conquerors or enemies, but as liberators." Sir Stanley
	Maude.

	B. 1920 British rule of Iraq under a League of Nations
	mandate.

	C. 1920 Arab revolt against British rule.

	D. 1932 Iraq received independence.

	E. 1955 Last British troops left Iraq.

III. Palestine Campaign

	A. Sir Edmund Allenby

		1. Arrived in Cairo 28 June 1917

		2. Replaced Sir Archibald Murray

		3. Informally known as "the Bull."

		4. A formidable character who frequently appeared
		for "suprise inspections" for which a message would
		be sent beforehand, "Bull loose."

	B. T.E. Lawrence (of Arabia) "A Prince of Our Disorders"

		1. Arab Specialist

		2. October 1916 semt to negotiate with Hussein of
		Mecca

		3. Illegitimate son of an Irish Lord, born into a
		Victorian household.

		4. Lawrence was always trying to compensiate for
		his illegitimate birtth.

			a. "A Prince of Our Disorders."

		5. Was knows as a "Brass Rubber."

		6. Fell in love with Arabic culture.

		7. Worked on Archaeological sites.

		8. Recruited by British Intelligence as an Arab
		specialist.

		9. Became closely associated with Faisal, son of
		Hussein.

	C. Hussein of Mecca

		1. Sharif of Mecca since 1908 by special administrative
		arrangement and a good politician.

		2. Member of the Hashim family, born and named in
		Constantinople.

		3. Agreement with Sir Henry McMahon, High Commissioner
		of Egypt, October 1915.

			Agreement between Sir Henry McMahon and
			Hussein of Mecca 24 October 1915

			(1) Subject to the above modifications,
			Great Britain is prepared to recognise and
			support the independence of the Arabs in
			all the regions within the limits demanded
			by the Sherif of mecca.

			(2) Great Britain will guarantee the Holy
			Places against all external aggression and
			will recognise their inviolability.

			(3) When the situation admits, Great Britain
			will give to the Arabs her advice and will
			assist them to establish what may appear
			to be the most suitable forms of government
			in those various territories.

			(4) On the other hand, it is understood
			that the Arabs have decided to seek the
			advice and guidance of Great Britain only,
			and that such European advisors and officials
			as may be required for the formation of a
			sound administration will be British.

			(5) With regard to the vilayets of Bagdad
			and Basra, the Arabs will recognise that
			the established position and interests of
			Great Britain necessitate special administrative
			arrangements in order to secure these
			territories from foreign aggression to
			promote the welfare of the local populations
			and to safeguard our mutual economic
			interests.

		4. Called for the Arab uprising, June 1916.

			a. Hussein built his Arab army of Bedouin
			tribesmen, for whom T.E. Lawrence carried
			gold to pay for their services.

			b. Lawrence and Faisal teamed up to plan
			the uprising.

		5. New Kingdom of Arabia.

			a. The "Young Turks" move on to the Holy
			City of Medina.

		6. Compare with Arafat.

	D. Aqaba Campaign

		1. Lawrence and Faisal

			a. Teamed up to plan military operations.

			b. Used Bedouin Calvary to attach Aquaba
			from the rear.

			c. Aquaba was an important port for warships
			and submarines and for the unloading of
			military supplies.

			d. Aquaba was fortified only on those sides
			facing the sea and not to the rear, from
			which the Bedouin Calvary led by Lawrence
			and Hussein attacked.

		2. Conquered Aqaba July 6, 1917.

	E. Jerusalem Campaign

		1. Assult on Gza and Beersheba.

			a. Was successful in part, due to a deception
			and new tatics employed by Allenby.

			b. Allenby was eager to employ new tactics
			in order to prevent the kind of stalemate
			he'd witnessed on the Western Front.

				1) Employed the new-formed Royal
				Flying Corps to taker aerial
				photographs from which up-to-date
				maps could be made.

				2) Employed deception by means of
				planting false information and
				sending wireless communications
				with false information.

				3) Knowing how much Ottomans enjoyed
				smoking tobacco, ordered propaganda
				messages printed on cigarette
				papers to be dropped behind the
				Ottoman lines, to be gathered and
				smoked by Turkish troops.

				4) The final distribution of
				propaganda message cigarettes,
				included cigarettes laced with
				large amounts of opium.

		2. Opened October 31, 1917

			a. As the Ottoman Turks retreated, their
			defensive positions grew increasingly more
			formidable.

			b. Neither Allenby, nor German General
			Falconer wished to have the Holy City
			exposed to shelling.

			c. Falconer evacuated his troops from
			Jerusalem leaving the city to fend for
			itself.

		3. Jerusalem fell to the British December 9.

			a. Allenby leaves his automobile and enters
			the Holy City on foot as was considered
			proper for a Christian.

			b. According to the New Testament, Jesus
			of Nazareth entered the city on a donkey
			and Christians considered themselves beneath
			the Nazaorean and therefore, walked into
			the city by foot.

			c. Kaiser Wilhelm once entered the Holy
			City on the back of a white horse.

			d. Perhaps Allenby wished to demonstrate
			that the Allies are not the kind to do such
			a thing as had done the Kaiser.

	F. Damascus Campaign

		1. Began September 19, 1918 Why the delay?

			a. The Great German offensive in the West
			had begun in March and all available British
			troops were sent there to coutner the
			Germans.

			b. Allenby was left with on combat power
			until after the military situation on the
			West had stablized.

			c. Also returning at this time was General
			Limon von Sanders.

			d. Allenby - using the new tactic of air
			power - orders and air raid by the Royal
			Flying Corps, which effectively disrupts
			ottoman communications.

			e. Lawrence and Faisal enter Damascus ahead
			of the British Army.

		2. Fall of Damascus, October 1

		3. End of Ottoman resistance, October 23

		4. Ottoman Empire surrendered unconditionally on
		October 31

		5. The British Army violated a treaty by occupying
		Mosul, which was intended to be occupied by France.

		6. All Ottoman territory was placed under the
		control of the Allies for "further operations."

		7. Film: "Part 17: Mustafa Kemal."

		http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7xhX_cdLGko

--------------------------------------------------------------------

November 27 THANKSGIVING HOLIDAY

November 30 Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1)

I. Secret Treaties

	A. Treaty of London March 1915 France, Britain, and Russia
	agreed that Russia would have the Straits and Constantinople
	at the end of the War. One of the provisions was that
	Russion would support British and French claims in the
	area.

		1. The French would occupy most of upper Anatolia,
		which would act as a "buffer zone" between Great
		Britian and Russia.

			a. French influence in Syria put France in
			competition with Russia.

		2. The "Holy Lands" would be governed by an
		International Constitution and Committee.

	B. April 26, 1915 Promises to Italy

	C. May 15-16, 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement

II. Promises to the Arabs

       A. July-December 1915:  Letters from Sir Henry McMahon, High
       Commissioner for Egypt and Sudan to Hussein of Mecca
       recognizing Hussein as King of the Arabs

	B. June 1916: Hussein proclaimed himself King of the Arabs
	and called on all Arabs to rise against the Turks

	C. December 26, 1915:  British government in Delhi recognized
	Ibn Saud, King of Nejd, as sovereign of eastern Arabia

III. Promises to the Jews

	A. Balfour Declaration, November 2, 1917

		1. The Bolshevik Revolution had begun and was
		supported by members of Russia's Jewish population.

			a. To it's Jewish population, Russia was
			the most hostile country to Jews.

			b. Germany was the most favorable. 

		2. The only woman present was Gertrude Bell.

	B. Balfour's Letter to Lord Rothschild

		Dear Lord Rothschild,

			I have much pleasure in conveying to you,
			on behalf of His Majesty's Government, the
			following declaration of sympathy with
			Jewish Zionist aspirations which has been
			submitted to, and approved by, the Cabinet.
			"His Majesty's Government view with favour
			the establishment in Palestine of a national
			home for the Jewish people, and will use
			their best endeavours to facilitate the
			achievement of this object, it being clearly
			understood that nothing shall be done which
			may prejudice the civil and religious rights
			of existing non-Jewish communities in
			Palestine, or the rights and political
			status enjoyed by Jews in any other country."
			I should be grateful if you would bring
			this declaration to the knowledge of the
			Zionist Federation.

			Yours sincerely,

	C. Last sentence in the letter is very important.

	D. Balfour was secretary of state for foreign affairs

	E. Suspicion that the Young Turks, Germans, and Jews were
	behind the Bolsheviks

		1. Lenin returned from exile in Switzerland, courtesy
		of the German General Staff and the Bolshevik
		revolution was subsidized by Germany.

		2. Trotsky, president of the Soviet, was a Jew.

		3. Great Britain wanted to prove that they, too;
		loved Jews.

	F. Hope that the Jews would keep Russia in the War

	G. Colonel House to President Wilson on the Secret Treaties:

		1. "It's all bad ..."

		2. Colonel House predicted these secret treaties
		would eventually lead to another war.

--------------------------------------------------------------------

December 2 Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (2)

IV. Allies took over

	A. November 13, 1918 Allied forces landed in Constantinople
	and secured the city

	B. February 8, 1919 French General Franchet d'Esperey
	entered Constantinople astride a white horse

		1. The white horse was a gift from the Constantinople
		Greek Merchant's Association.

	C. May 15, 1919 Greek troops land at Smyrna

		1. The Greeks were considered as peasants to the Turks.

		2. The Turks could endure no more, ending in ...

	D. Turkish resistance

V. Mustapha Kemal "Anaturk" - the Founder of Modern Turkey

	A. Hero of Gallipoli

		1. A Young Turk who didn't like Enver Pasha.

	B. May 19, 1919 Made inspector general of Third Army in
	eastern Anatolia, which was intact and had done no fighting
	since the Russian Revolution

		1. He organizes the 3rd Army into a resistance
		movement.

	C. July 23-August 6 National Congress met at Erzerum under
	Mustapha Kemal's leadership

	D. September 13 The National Pact

VI. National Pact, September 13, 1919

	A. Self-determination

	B. Security of Constantinople

	C. Opening of the Straits to shipping of all nations

	D. Rights for minorities

	E. Abolition of capitulations

		1. Capitulations: freedoms given to foreign interests.

	F. Confirmed by Parliament on January 28, 1920

VII. Greco-Turkish War, 1920-1921

	A. June 22, 1920 Greeks marched inland encouraged by Lloyd
	George who wanted to put pressure on Mustapha Kemal to
	accept the Treaty of S�vres

		1. The Sultan accepts the Treaty of S�vres.

		2. Mustafa Kemal does not accept the Treaty of
		S�vres.

	B. December 1920-March 1921 Mustapha Kemal reached agreements
	with Armenia, Italy, and the USSR

	C. August 24-September 16 1921 Battle of Sakkaria

		1. A decisive battle in which the Turks drive the
		Greeks back and then organize an offensive.

	D. What reallly changed things were the secret treaties,
	all signed in different palaces in Paris, France.

	E. More Europeans died between the years, 1918 - 1922 than
	during the whole of the First World War.

	E. More Europeands died between the years, 1918 - 1922 than
	during the whole of the First World War.

VIII. Greco-Turkish War, 1922-1923

	A. August 1922 Turks launched decisive offensive

	B. September 9-13 Conquest and destruction of Smyrna (Izmir)

		1. Massacre and burning.

		2. The Armenian quarter of the city was severly
		savaged by the Rurks.

	C. September 15 Lloyd George appealed to the Empire to save
	the Greeks

	D. October 11 Armistice

		1. One hour before a planned Turkish attack.

	E. November 1 Mohammed VI leaves Constantinople on a British
	warship

		1. Marks the end of the Turkish Empire.

	F. January 30 1923 Greco-Turkish Exchange of Populations
	Agreement

		1. "Blood and Oil," Part 21

	G. July 1923 Treaty of Lausanne

IX. Resistance in the Arab World

	A. March 1919 Egypt rose

		1. The Egyptians did not want to be ruled by the
		British Empire.

		2. Allenby was sent in to restore order.

	B. April 1919 Afghanistan

	C. May 25 1919 Hussein's army, under command of his son,
	Abdullah, defeated by Ibn Saud and his Wahhabis

		1. Abdullah and his command fled in terror to the
		west.

	D. 1924-1925 Ibn Saud captured Mecca and Medina

	E. July 1920 French occupied Damascus and expelled Faisal

	F. Late 1919 Bedouins and local Arabs attack Jewish
	settlements in Palestine

	G. April 1920 Arab/Jewish battles in Jerusalem

	H. June 1920 Full-scale revolt in Iraq

	I. February 1921 Iraq pacified by 150,000 British Indian
	troops

X. Cairo Conference March 1921

	A. Faisel would be king of Iraq

	B. Abdullah would be ruler of Transjordan

	C. No Jews past the Jordan River

		1. A promise to Abdullah.

	D. �100,000 per year to Ibn Saud

	E. Palestine would be British

	F. "Blood and Oil," Part 21

XI. Quote

	"In 1922, Churchill succeeded in mapping out the Arab Middle
	East along lines suitable to the needs of the British
	civilian and military administrations. T. E. Lawrence would
	later brag that he, Churchill and a few others had designed
	the modern Middle East over dinner."

--------------------------------------------------------------------

December 4 Review for the Final Exam - Second Term Paper Due Today!

I. The final exam covers material following the midterm.

II. What will be on the final exam?

	A. Twelve identification questions from which you are to
	answer nine. (5 points each, 45 points total)

		6 historical 

		6 religious

	B. One essay question from the assigned reading by Mazower.
	(15 points)

	C. Four twenty-minute essay questions from which you are
	to write on three. (20 points each, 60 points total)

III. How the points are assigned.

	A. Identification	45 points

	B. Mazower Essay	15 points

	C. 20 min Essays	20 points

	D. TOTAL		120 points

IV. Blue books not needed.

V. Additional Information.

	A. Know how British, French, Russian and Austrian foreign
	policies all played in roled in the loss of Ottoman territory.

	B. Khow why Egypt broke away from the Ottoman Empire and
	why the European powers got involved.

		1. Suez Canal

		2. Colonial mercantile economics.

		3. The need for unhindered trade with the East.

	C. When reading M a z o w e r , pay particular attention
	to the treatment of minorities by the Ottoman Empire.

	D. Remember the relatioship between Mustafa Kemal and the
	Sultan, Mehmed VI.

		1. At first, Kemal supported the Sultan.

		2. After being branded as a criminal by Mehmed's
		government in Constantinople, Kemal began to oppose
		him.

--------------------------------------------------------------------


FINAL EXAMINATION: FRIDAY, DECEMBER 11, 3:00-5:00 P.M.

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